Is Love More Powerful Than Hate? Essay

In our brains love and hate are right next to each other, but which one is more powerful? Hate, makes people physically aggressive, unreasonable, consequently very dangerous but in order to hate you have to love, first. You might say you hate someone without even knowing them, but how do you know you hate them? Do you have a reason to hate them? Maybe not or maybe yes. But if you do hate them then that means you once loved them and even if you hate them you still care about them and still care about their feelings. You might say I hate you to everyone but hate is a strong word and you might hurt their feelings, so you have to think before I say â€Å"I hate you†. Do you really mean it? Or are you saying it just to hurt their feelings? If you’re saying it to hurt their feelings it’s because you care about their feelings and you don’t hate them, you love them. Love can also be dangerous because love can lead to hate. For example, when you’re on a relationship and the guy finds out you’re cheating on him, if he loves you so much he’ll probably get very angry and ager leads to hate, or he’ll let it go. In depends on the person. Everyone has a different meaning for love and hate. Hate is destructive, not powerful. Love can destruct hate. But can hate destruct love? No, because love can heal the hate that you have for that person. Hate might be dangerous but it’s not powerful, how do you know you hate someone? In your brain, the feeling, love and hate are right next to each other so you can’t tell if what you are doing is for love or because you could do something you think is for love but really is for hate or the other way around. But again if you hate someone that means you once loved them and you can heal the hate that you have for them, so in my opinion love is more powerful than hate.

Bridging the Gender Gap in Oil and Gas

1.0 Introduction For many countries, the extractive industry plays a major role as an economic driver, creating jobs, revenue and opportunities for development and growth. There are also social, economic and environmental risks associated with these industries which affect men and women differently. Research by the World Bank (2009) has indicated that men have the most access to the benefits of these industries, whilst women are more likely to suffer the consequences of the social and environmental harms associated therewith. The different experiences of men and women in these industries significantly affect the ability of women to contribute to active growth and development in their respective economies. The gender gap in the oil and gas industry exists in two separate forms, the first being the top-end employment discrimination where there is a lack of females at the higher end of the employment spectrum seeing very low numbers of female engineers, and science and technology employees (European Com mission, 2009). On the one hand this problem is a reflection of the imbalance of opportunities for adequate education, and on the other is what is referred to as the ‘leaky pipeline’ conundrum which describes the phenomenon of disproportionate numbers of women leaving these professions in each consecutive career stage in this industry. The second form of the gender gap is the very low numbers of female employees at the bottom end of the employment spectrum, that which requires lower education standards, but which may be more physically intensive. The World Bank reports (2009) that in most companies there is a female workforce of less than 10%, as these types of jobs are generally considered to be a ‘man’s job’. This is so because of the inherent physicality required in these work environments and the exposure to chemicals which presents a problem for female employees that are pregnant, meaning more time away from work and the inability to work if pre gnant. This research will consider the existence of the gender gap, the justifications therefore, the effects of the gap and recommendations for closing this gap in the industry in terms of ensuring that the opportunities for growth and development, both economic and social are equally accessible in modern oil and gas industry. 1.1 Background to Research 1.2 Significance of Research 1.3 Research Question & Research Objectives1.3.1 Research QuestionWhat is the extent of the gender gap in the oil and gas industry?1.3.2 Research ObjectivesTo determine the causes of the gender gap in the oil and gas industry. To determine the effect of the gender gap in the industry. To determine a succinct set of recommendations for companies in the industry, as well as regulatory authorities in order to close this gap moving towards equal employment opportunities in this industry. 1.4 Proposed Structure 2.0 Methodology The research is primarily a conceptual research dissertation that focuses on an extensive conceptualization, contextualization, evaluation, and analysis of the key issues relating to Corporate Social Responsibility in the oil and gas industry. A conceptual research employs an analytical framework that is based on â€Å"a set of broad theories and ideas that help the researcher to identify accurately the problem(s) they seek to address, frame their research questions appropriately, and locate appropriate literature on the research subject† (Smyth, 2004: 168). In using the conceptual research method, this research combines theoretical and analytical aspects in order to achieve its aims and objectives and provide pertinent answers to the research objectives. In light of the fact that conceptual research requires access to an extensive pool of resources, there is a great reliance on diverse sources of secondary materials for analysis. In this regard, some of the sources of seconda ry data for the research and analysis include electronic databases such as Questia, Jstor, Emerald Insight, and Google Scholar. Of specific interest are journals that focus on gender issues in extractive industries in general as these are analogous with the oil and gas sector, but particularly those that are based on the study and evolution of the gender gap in oil and gas companies, focusing on developing nations and the Gulf countries, as these represent compounded historical gender issues. 2.1 Qualitative Research 2.2 Content Analysis 2.3 Data Collection 2.4 Reliability and Validity of Research 2.5 Research Limitations 3.0 Literature Review 3.1 The Gender Gap in Developing versus Developed Countries3.1.1 Differences in Socio-economic problems3.1.2 The relevance of education in enforcing this gender gapIf one considers the vast differences in education priority placed in Gulf countries by comparison to African oil-economies such as Nigeria, one can see a very different picture of the relevance of education. On the one hand, Gulf countries are more likely to actively discriminate against female executive employees as there is a larger pool of adequately qualified female candidates, where in developing countries there are fewer qualified candidates, because of the lack of priority given to education and particularly education of females.3.1.3 The difference in the nature of the Gender Gap in different socio-economic conditions3.2 Cultural Sensitivities and Pragmatism In certain regions of oil and gas exploration, companies base their hiring discrimination on ‘cultural sensitivities’ where there is a concern for hiring women in higher-paying jobs would cause a backlash against women by their male colleagues (Musvoto, 2001). This has resulted in communities with soaring unemployment rates of up to 87% of women, despite the female demographic representing over half the local population. Particularly in developing countries, there is a trend towards rural-urban migration of the working population which often sees the breadwinner of a family leaving to work in an urban environment which perpetuates this gender gap by enforcing the role of the female as a caregiver rather than a breadwinner. In addition to these cultural sensitivities is a pragmatic approach taken by oil and gas companies which represents the bottom line in the sector in terms of cost implications. There is an argument to be made either way, with diversity goals becoming a secondary concern in favour of productivity and outcome. Male workers often have had greater educational opportunities and therefore less training and education is required, as well as less concern for factors of work-life balance. In the current economic climate, cost effective labour solutions are being of primary importance, particularly considering the growing importance of labour standards and quality of work environments which also present greater cost implications. On the other hand, studies have shown that in employment that is non-physical in nature women perform more productively and effectively, coupled with the barrier to private sector growth and development that employment discrimination breeds, increased female representation in the oil and gas sector may prove to be a more economical labour practice. Unfortunately however, despite evidence of long-term benefits of gender equality in the sector, companies choose short-term benefits which perpetuate and enforce this g ender gap.3.2.1 The broader socio-economic effect of the culturally enforced gender gapA theoretical expose on the broader socio-economic effects of the gender gap, e.g. continued lower education levels of women, perpetuated poverty for single parent households, lack of diversity in the workplace.3.2.2 The benefit of a diverse workplace3.2.3 Increased Issues with Work-Life Balance based on Gender3.3 Leaky Pipeline Anomaly and Evolution of Policy to Mitigate the Gender GapThere are a number of potential explanations for this anomalous situation of women in high end oil and gas jobs, one of which is the role of women in many societies as the primary caregiver of their families (United Nations, 2008). Therefore, as women progress through their careers there is a likelihood of their care responsibilities, as well as job responsibilities increasing proportionately and simultaneously, and as a result they are less able to meet the demands of higher level employment. Whilst certain industr y competitors have been recorded as saying that they attempt to incorporate individual career plans that take account of these increasingly personal responsibilities of employees (Al Tukmachy, 2012), the reality is a labyrinth of professional obstacles described as the ‘glass ceiling’ metaphor where female progression in the industry is limited due to concerns of increased need for consideration of factors of the work-life balance that are less present in their male counterparts (European Commission, 2009). As a result, women are often worked out of these executive and management positions, because companies offer incomprehensive policies that do not consider individual career and family outcomes (European Commission, 2009).3.3.1 Current Changes in Policy Direction to Increase Diversity and Retention of Female Staff – A corporate perspective 3.3.2 International Instruments Mandating Diversity in Oil and Gas MNEs4.0 Discussion 4.1 Analysis of the Gender Gap by Reg ion 4.2 Analysis of the Gender Gap by Employment Level4.2.1 Executive 4.2.2 Managerial 4.2.3 Non-managerial 4.2.4 Labour 4.2.5 Discussion 4.3 Current Examples of Corporate Policy for Non-Discriminatory Work Practices 4.3.1 Strengths 4.3.2 Weakness 4.4 Current Examples of Employment Schemes aimed at Female Inclusion in the Workplace 4.4.1 Strengths 4.4.2 Weaknesses5.0 Conclusion The gender gap in the oil and gas sector is very current and topical debate as gender equality in the workplace is becoming a diversity goal around the world. Careful understanding of the causes and effects thereof are imperative for the management of these companies and the greater macro-economic goals of development and growth. This research therefore aims to contribute to the current understanding of these goals in order to further the studies and make concrete recommendations in order to close this gap and further growth and development in the sector. 5.1 Recommendations 5.2 Conclusion References Al Munajjed, M. (2008) Women’s Employment in Saudi Arabia: A Major Challenge, Ideation Center Insight: Booz & Co Al Tukmachy, S. (2012) ‘Interview with Saba Al Tukmachy, Career Development Manager at ENOC’ Leaders of the Future Summit: Bridging the gap in oil and gas, 1 – 12 April 2012, Abu Dhabi: UAE Eftimie, A., Heller, K. & Strongman, J. (2009) Gender Dimensions of the Extractive Industries. The World Bank: Extractive Industries and Development Series European Commission (2009) Women in science and technology: Creating sustainable careers. EUR 23740 EN Musvoto, A. (2001) Gender and Mining: Community. Birnam Park: African Institute of Corporate Citizenship Smyth, R. (2004) â€Å"Exploring the usefulness of a conceptual framework as a research tool: A researcher’s reflection†, Issues in Educational Research, 14(2), 167-180. United Nations (2008) Equal sharing of responsibilities between women and men. United Nations Division for the Advanceme nt of Women. Expert Group Meeting, Geneva, 6-9 October, 2008

Luxury vehicle Essay

1. Cadillac introduced it’s new luxury SUV that is called the Escalade, and they had no idea in what direction it would lead to. To their surprise, it becomes a instant classic and the most popular truck on the market. They weren’t set out to target a specific customer base, they just wanted to keep up with the SUV craze. They saw other companies putting out similar vehicles, so they wanted to dip into that market. Once it released, it seemed to become a staple in the hip hop community, sports world, and for regular customers looking for a luxury SUV. It became most prominent however in the hip hop and sports cultures. You see tons of athletes arriving to the games in their escalades, and a lot of hip hop artists have them featured in their music videos. For some reason, it just excelled in the market, and there is really no particular reason for it. It could be because of how unique it looks, the luxurious features, or just off the time it was released. The music and sports industry started to boom so there was a lot of money to be spent and the Escalade was the newest and hottest item on the street. 2. The Escalade became so popular I believe for the power it represents. I feel that if you own a Escalade, you have a sense of power in a way. Whether it shows that you have money, a sense of style, or anything else, it just brings off a certain type of vibe. It shows some type of boldness as well, because you think of personality when you think of an Escalade. When you look at one, you notice first how the shiny grill stands out and just how luxurious the car is. I think in a way Cadillac has extended its appeal because now a lot of the Cadillacs feature the shiny grill. You also see its influence on other vehicles, because a lot of competitors base their models off of it and try to make some similarities. 3. Other companies have a lot to learn from the Escalade. If they do it right, maybe they can become the leader in luxury SUVs. It’s all about whom you have to endorse your product and how you market it out to the public. Cadillac know it has many endorsers that are famous and widely known throughout the world. When you have people of that magnitude openly using your products, you gain a tremendous amount of recognition. Also, before you come up with a new concept or design, you should allow potential customers to see the product to see if it would be something they would like. If you market your product correctly, there is a good chance that it will be successful just like the Cadillac Escalade. Case Study Cadillac is one of the most popular vehicle brands in the United States to this date. As Americans, we tend to treat it differently because it is the luxury brand of our Country. Since it is an American made car, we take a sense of pride in it, and owning one is something special. In 1998 there started to be a craze for mid size SUVs, and just like every other vehicle company, Cadillac had some thoughts in mind. They released their brand new line of the Cadillac Escalade, a large luxurious SUV. When they originally released it, they felt that their market would be traditional customers, but boy, where they wrong. In fact, it was the complete opposite. The Escalade seemed to become nationally recognized when it was constantly featured in hip hop videos, commercials, and the sports industry. While Cadillac didn’t intend to get into those specific markets, I’m sure they aren’t complaining because of how much recognition it gave them. However, it does seem to brush off a certain bad image when you see it featured in some of those ways. When you see a Escalade in a hip hop video that has drugs, half naked women, and curse words, it may rub some of your other customers off. It can be seen as a gang car, and you certainly don’t want to be driving one of those in certain areas. A regular family can be in the market for a SUV, but they may get a negative vibe from the Escalade because it may come off as being too â€Å"hood† or â€Å"ghetto† for them. I’m not too sure how a car can gain that characteristic, but I understand by it being featured and abused in certain ways, it can portray a negative image. Cadillac can feature their products in certain ways, and be able to be seen as a positive vehicle that is made for everybody. They can limit their exposure in hip hop videos if they feel that is necessary. When you see certain commercials you notice that the brand symbol is blurred out. If Cadillac saw this as a dilemma, they can gain access to have their emblems blurred out in rap videos that feature bad behavior. They can still gain national recognition by more of a formal type of commercial. This way, you do not offend any particular race, and show that the vehicle is suitable for people of all ages, color, and race. Cadillac has become on of the mot powerful and influential car brand, that I feel they don’t need to do too much to market themselves. They already have a tremendously large market.

Americans with Disabilities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Americans with Disabilities - Essay Example Additionally, a potential employer or labor union may not require medical examinations for any position unless that employer requires a medical examination of every candidate for that position. Employers are not required to treat alcohol or drug addiction or abuse as a disability (Facts about the Americans with Disabilities Act). This legislation is certainly the opposite of the way that disabilities have been handled throughout history. Even as early as the fourth century, hospices were created for such disabilities as blindness (in Caesarea, a city in modern-day Turkey) (Davis 89). Even though disabled persons have made up the largest physical minority in the American population for many years now, though, very little attention has been paid historically to the rights of the disabled. There has also been little attention paid in the academic community to disability studies, a lacuna in academia that is slowly being filled as time goes by (Davis 1). This may be based on the fact that the vast majority of the public discriminates against the disabled, on more levels than majorities discriminate against ethnic or lifestyle minorities, and it may also be based on the fact that people with disabilities are less in the public eye than members of ethnic or lifestyle minorities, because they are not as active part icipants in public society because of their perceived, or actual, limitations. This is not to say that the Americans with Disabilities Act has not has positive effects for the disabled living in the United States. Progress has been made on many fronts. For example, government regulations for buildings now include requirements for such accommodations as elevators and ramps. As a result, the physically disabled now are able to be far more visible in society than they once were (Potier). However, the law has not had all of the effects that its writers and supporters had hoped. Of the discrimination lawsuits filed since the bill was signed in 1990, 90 percent have ended up in favor of the employer, rather than the alleged victim. As a percentage of the population, the disabled are represented in the ranks of the employed at about the same level that they were in 1990 (Potier). One reason for the low success rate of these lawsuits may be the quality of legal representation. Because plaintiff's attorneys in damages cases are paid a percentage of the damages, and because damages are so infrequently rewarded to disabilities rights victims, it is difficult to get lawyers of quality to take their cases. Other reasons include a reluctance by the American judiciary to interfere with the ways that employers operate their businesses - a laissez-faire approach, that, on the surface, goes back to the desire for independence that was one of the philosophical building blocks of our nation. Cases that request accommodations, for this reason, are very rarely successful, while cases that focus on the discrimination that comes with stigma, on the other hand, are more often successful (Potier). This ambivalent set of effects that the Americans with Disabilities Act has had for disability rights is typical of many of the advances made by the disability rights movement. One example is the Jerry Lewis telethon, held every Labor Day to benefit the Muscular Dystrophy Association. While this event brings in millions of dollars for muscular dystrophy research and treatment every year, it

Textile ARt Model's Comparison and Contrast Essay

Textile ARt Model's Comparison and Contrast - Essay Example Textile art is one of the most fundamental mediums of art. One of the two pieces of art discussed in the following section is the robe of the Empress Dowager Cixi and the other piece of art is the Amish crazy quilt. The Textile Art The textile art has been just as famous throughout the history as it is today. Its immense popularity can be attributed to the fact that fabric has been one of the most fundamental needs of humans at all times. Cloth was needed not only to cover the body, but also to protect it against the harsh effects of the weather. Besides, cloth is used as bed-spreads, table tops, curtains, nets and several other things of huge domestic significance. Its great usability is what always renders the textile art extreme value, importance and appreciation. The Empress’s Dress and the Amish Crazy Quilt: Contrast and comparison Clothes an individual chooses to cover the body essentially depict the taste of the individual and play a big role in improving or tarnishing the looks of the individual. A cloth may be of very good color otherwise, though if it does not go well with the complexion of the person wearing it, the beauty of the color loses its significance and it looks more odd than enchanting. On the other hand, if the color of the clothes is matched with the complexion, it speaks volumes about the taste and sense of style of the person wearing it. That is the fundamental reason why we can see the yellow dress of the Empress bordered with a thick strip whose dark color compliments the central portion as shown in the figure below: Empress Dowager Cixi’s Robe (â€Å"Denver Art Museum†). In order to facilitate the comparison and contrast the Amish crazy quilt is shown in the following figure: The Amish crazy quilt (â€Å"Denver Art Museum†). Period of the chosen art models: Crazy quilts were extremely popular in the US starting from the early 1870s till late 1920s. The dress in the second picture belongs to the Empress Dow ager Cixi who was born in 1835 and died in 1908. The two fabrics essentially existed in the same period, with the quilt being in fashion for about one to two decades after the death of the Empress. Market of the two art models: The quilt and dress differ in that the former was a public property and anyone could purchase or somehow acquire a quilt of his/her own whereas the dress solely was the property of the Empress Dowager Cixi and could not be accessed by common people. The Empress that possessed the dress was in charge of the Manchu throne of China whereas the crazy quilts were as famous and common among the ordinary people as the big landlords. Material: The material used for the making of the dress and the quilt was different. The dress of the Empress is made up of lightweight gauze and is suitable for wearing in the summer season whereas solid colored materials and fabrics were made use of to make the Amish crazy quilts, and unlike the dress of the Empress, these quilts were suitable for use in the winter season. The dress and quilt were similar in the quality that neither of the two had excessive ornamentation, though if the two were to be compared, the quilt had more ornaments than the dress. The beauty of these quilts was that they were made in a highly informal fashion. Non-Amuish makers of the quilt kept collecting irregular and rough silk and velvet fabrics in order to

Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Film - Essay Example I will have spent some time with a friend I haven’t seen in a year, and that’s the end of it. I can’t believe this is so hard for you. What are you going to do when my work starts taking me to remote places around the world? Okay. This is Neigh, and it is about 10 p.m. on January 7, 2008. I decided that it was best, safest really, to put into the record the document that is the reason behind this trip – expedition even. Two days ago, I bought a box of surprise junk at an auction. When I got home, I found an old leather bound book in the box. There were a few drawings in the book, and I immediately recognized it is Celtic. The book is written in Celtic, but it has pictures, too. I could tell from the pictures that the book belonged to a Celtic priest, a Druid. It has drawings of Stonehenge in it, and an alignment of the planets that shows Venus, Jupiter and the Moon in conjunction with one another. That planetary line up is going to happen this weekend, beginning on Friday. This alignment will last a week, and then will not happen again for at least a thousand years. According to the book, the alignment will open a gate to another dimension on that night. I am going to be there Friday night, and i f there is a door, if this book is legitimate, I am going through. Well, it is not going to change tonight whatever is left, or isn’t. Besides, look, the missing stone is not even the one that is shown in the drawing. Your stone is still there. You know, as much as I don’t believe this, I kind of have this feeling. By the way, where is the original book? Sitting at Neigh’s desk, Sayge is busy reading about Stonehenge on the computer when she notices the ancient book. She closes Neigh’s laptop, takes the book and goes to the couch where she snuggles in, covers her long legs with a throw, and begins reading the book. She falls asleep. Neigh and Franklin getting out of Neigh’s car at Stonehenge. Neigh

The Talk with Voluntary Participation of a Project Assignment

The Talk with Voluntary Participation of a Project - Assignment Example I explained to them it has to be done according to the procedure to avoid problems in complicated studies. They were given the list of words first and allowed to study it. It took about 2-5 minutes to study the list. Then they were given the distracter math quiz and recognition test thereafter. All participants were keen to answer the math quiz. At the end of the test, they wanted to know how many answers were correct. In Recognition test participants were asked to circle the words that they have seen in the word list prior to the math quiz. Two participants requested a further explanation of the procedure and I explained them. One subject wanted to read the word list for another time (aftermath quiz) but he was not permitted to do so. All the participants were confident about the words which were on the memory list and two of them (A and B) correctly circled all words in the list. Further, they confidently gave scores for the words they believed that was on the list. However, when they were asked to give scores from 1-5 for each word, that was not in the list they were confused and three of them felt that their early answers were wrong and they have missed more. They were confident about the words in the memory list but less confident about the words not in the list. They spent comparatively longer time to decide the scores for the words not in the list and for most words they gave scores less than 5. Only one participant (B) confidently gave 5 marks for the words, not in the list and all of his answers were correct. It took approximately 45 to 60 minutes to complete a session with a participant. Since participants wanted to know their results at the end of each session their scores were calculated and explained. Three of them wanted to spend some time to go through the wrong answers and understand them. Therefore answer papers were given back to them for about 5 to 10Â  minutes.

Trademark registration related to business law of Qatar Research Paper

Trademark registration related to business law of Qatar - Research Paper Example There have been cases in the world previously where one company thrives out of piracy by enjoying the goodwill of another company. This is a criminal offense in the business world today. Trademark law was developed to counter this offense. Trademark law is a set of rules developed by countries, trade blocks or international bodies that protect trademarks within their jurisdictions hence eliminating unfair competition. The service mark is different from a trademark in that a trademark serves to protect products while service mark serves to protect services. According to the Oxford business group, The Qatar government has a trademark law in place that was established in the year 2002.   This law states that trademarks are protected in the nation of Qatar as per law number 9 of 2002, known as the Trademarks Law. This term is effective from the date of registration and is afterward renewed after every ten years. At the moment, applications for patent protection registration service cen sing are made to the Gulf corporation council patent office, which does the registration of patents throughout the Gulf corporation council member states; since Qatar does not yet have a patent registration system of its own. In the case of an infringement of a person’s intellectual property rights, he or she can file a complaint with the trademarks office and in some cases, the matter may be reported to the police. An application will be turned down if it is not unique, or it just describes the product or service it is representing.

Comparative Eastern Influences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparative Eastern Influences - Essay Example Both religions employ the concepts of karma, the understanding that a person's happiness is determined by the good and evil he/she has committed in not only one lifetime but many subsequent lifetimes, and nirvana, the exemption from the repetition of living, dying, and reliving (p. 497). In Hinduism, according to Bruder and Moore (2005), "humans, though basically good, are caught up in a cycle of desire and suffering that is the direct result of ignorance and ego. In short, they are miserable. The desires that torment them are many and diverse, including sensual lusts and the desire for existence" (p. 497). Hinduism's beliefs are built upon searching for absolutism, and for a person to obtain a unity with his/her soul and with eternal life (p. 495). In a similar fashion, Buddhism targets ignorance and selfishness as the grounds for suffering. Bruder and Moore (2005) state that a person cannot have these two character flaws as a way to live "because what happens is so much beyond one' s control. For even when life goes as is hoped for, there is no guarantee that it will continue that way, and inevitably anxiety and fear overwhelm temporary satisfaction" (p. 498). The Vedas are Hinduism's doctrine that instructs the ideal way of living. It contains the Upanishads, which contains the mahavakya, or "the four great sayings" (p. 496). Atman is, simply, one person and his soul. Brahman is, as Bruder and Moore (2005) write, the "ultimate reality or principal and the source and sustainer of all things, including people and gods. It is the supreme consciousness, the one, the One-and-only-One" (p. 496). The mahavakya describe how a Hindu can unity his atman and a brahman (which can be done through much meditation): "1) Consciousness is brahman, 2) That art thou, 3) The self is brahman, and 4) I am brahman" (p. 495-6). The Vedas influenced the religion's philosophical schools, created to help its students achieve spiritual emancipation: Yoga, Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, and Mimamsa (p. 495). Buddhism has the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as its dogmas. The Four Noble Truths acknowledge that agony exists, the sources of agony, the actuality that the person can terminate his/her agony, and how to do so, which are illustrated in the eight statements known as the Eightfold Path (p. 498). The directions contained in the Eightfold Path are the Right View, Right Aim, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Contemplation. These are listed in the order that the person must take in order to succeed. For example, the right aim cannot be established without first having the right view (pp. 500-502). Hindu's origins are unknown; no one knows who discovered it, when, or under what circumstances. However, Hindus accept the dogmas dictated in the Vedas (p. 495). Despite its unknown origins, Bruder and Moore (2005) state, "It is best to view it (Hinduism) as a spiritual attitude that gives rise to a wide range of religious and philosophical beliefs and practices. These range from the worship of village and forest deities, which often take zoomorphic forms, to sophisticated metaphysical theories" (p. 495). With Buddhism, there is a detailed account of its establishment by Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who would later be renowned

IT Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

IT - Research Paper Example However, every system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Certain components easily get corrupted due to many reasons like improper handling and heat. Therefore, the factors causing damage must be carefully analyzed and techniques to reduce and to protect the data must be adopted. Role of Information Technology Information Technology plays a key role globally. It deals with computing technology, such as the internet, software, hardware or networking system. In other words, it is the tool of managing information using different software and hardware devices (Agarwal & Prasad, 2012). At present, information technology is used in varied sectors like medical and health, education and widely in corporate sectors. Information technology has become an inseparable part of private as well as public sector institutions. Consequently, the risk of media failure and data losses has been a serious matter of concern. Thus, creating the needs for reliable backup media to avoid data losses is q uite imperative (Chau & Hu, 2001). Backup Media Backup is usually an activity of copying databases in order to preserve that database in case a system failure takes place. Backup is a routine operation for the IT users. Backup prevents the users when catastrophe occurs in the system. The file when retrieved back to the system, it is called restoring. Various types of physical backup media are used to backup files, such as Optical DVD media, Internal Hard Disk, External Hard Disk and Flash memory (Hagen & Bieringer, 2001). Optical DVD Media Optical media comprises recordable/rewritable as well as dual layer formats DVD and CD disks. Optical Disc Drives use electromagnetic or laser light waves for reading and writing data. These devices are reasonably cost effective media to store small amount of data. In present times, nearly each and every personal computer comes with DVD or CD burners or writers. Data can be written and stored easily in a few minutes. Data can be stored in the form of documents, audio, video or in digital form. DVD rewritable permits the user to write discs and then erase and rewrite. DVD recordable provides permanent record for the data copied. Optical discs do not provide enough data storage space when compared to other media storages. Optical disks are not suitable for full system backup as it does not have sufficient capacity to store data .It needs certain special drives to write or read. Data stored in optical media gets destroyed, if it is scratched or exposed to heat. Thus, long-term reliability of optical DVD media cannot be assured (Hagen & Bieringer, 2001). Internal Hard Disk or A Second Hard Disk, Mounted Internally Internal Hard Disk is used for storing and retrieving digital information in the computer system. The hard disk may result in failure in many ways and cause loss of data either partly or totally. Internal hard disks are within the computer system and are easily available. Moving of files in case of internal hard disk i s easy and fast. The benefit of using internal hard disk is that its cost is low and the data transfer is easy. Data can be kept stored in the internal hard disk for considerable amount of time in various types of data format. It is highly vulnerable to virus attacks and malware. Trojans and power loss can cause data corruption and in such circumstances it

Disabled Identity Essay Example for Free

Disabled Identity Essay The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how, from a historical perspective, media representation has impacted on the lives of people with disabilities, with a focus on facial disfigurement. A comparison between the terms ‘impairment’ and ‘disabled’ will clearly identify a difference between the concepts in terms of the medical and social models of disability. The paper will continue by analysing how negative media imagery has served to diminish the lives of people with facial disfigurement and ultimately been responsible for creating a ‘disabled identity’. Furthermore, the paper will highlight the shift from the medical model to a social model of disability, while taking into account the views and perceptions of groups of people with disabilities. It is important to consider the difference between the terms ‘impairment’ and ‘disabled’. Mason (2000) describes impairment as a characteristic, feature or attribute within an individual which is long term and may affect an individual’s appearance or affect the functioning of that individual’s mind or body, because of, or regardless of society. Mason further suggests that disabled people are those with impairments who are disabled by barriers in society. This includes people with physical impairments, people with visual impairments, people with learning difficulties and those who have experienced mental illness. The two terms ‘impairment’ and ‘disabled’ signal a difference between the concepts, in terms of the medical and social models of disability. According to Clough and Corbett (2000) the medical model points to practices which call on pathology. The model focuses on sickness, rather than health and reactive measures instead of preventative measures. Hence, under the medical model, disabled people are defined by their impairment, illness or medical condition. Open University (2006) suggest that the medical model promotes the view of a disabled person as dependent, needing to be cured or cared for. It justifies the way in which disabled people are excluded from society. Brainhe (2010) suggests that the social model is a concept which recognises that some individuals have impairments which can affect their ability to function in society. However, it is society that causes the individual to become disabled. According to Shakespear (1996) Identity is viewed by the medical model negatively as the focus in relation to disability is primarily based on adjusting, mourning and coming to terms with loss. Furthermore, identity is about belonging, what you have in common with others and how you differ from others. Conversely, the social model focuses on oppression within society and calls for change, empowering and promoting a different self-understanding. According to Changing Faces (2008) The word â€Å"disfigurement† is used to describe the aesthetic effects of a mark, rash, scar or skin graft on a person’s skin or an asymmetry or paralysis to their face or body. Furthermore, disfigurement can affect anyone in childhood or adulthood, from any ethnic group, whether it is the result of an accident, trauma, violent attack, caused by a disease such as cancer or the aftermath of a surgical procedure. Moreover, 112,000 young people in the United Kingdom have a significant facial disfigurement. Safran (1998) suggests that as a culture of mass media consumers, messages from newspapers and television impact on public attitudes towards individuals with disabilities and help shape social attitudes, through the provision of information about the nature of exceptionalities. Furthermore, encouraging social attitudes and acceptance are critical to inclusion for successful community and educational integration. Research by Bogdan (1988) indicated that during the nineteenth and twentieth century, media representation reflected the medical model of disability. Furthermore, people with disabilities have been used for entertainment and profit as human oddities and freaks for hundreds of years. Bogdan (1988) refers to two different styles of representation. The exotic mode presented the performer in a way that would ‘appeal to the spectator’s interest in the culturally strange, the primitive, the exotic’. Whereas in the Aggrandized mode of presentation, the emphasis was that despite condition, the performer was an upstanding, high status person. At the turn of the nineteenth century, audiences turned away from Freak shows, for reasons of exploitation. This resulted in isolation for the performer from society and the economy. Consequently, most performers spent the rest of their lives in institutions. Bogdan (1988, pg. 65) concluded: Freak shows disappeared because the performers had become curiosities of pathology and the scientific world. stigmatizing performers with a link to deviance. This stigma was such that visibility produced fear and repulsion and led to segregation and invisibility. According to Safran (1998) early film portrayal used disabilities to heighten the effect of slapstick comedies and melodramas, and frequently presented stereotypes of individual as victim or villain. Since 1904, wheelchairs presented a wide range of images including humor, evil, helplessness and confinement. After 1929, screenplays depicted physical disabilities. The horror film Frankenstein adapted various disabling characteristics, including motor difficulties; facial disfigurement to provoke fear (Longmore,1985). The portrayal of physical disabilities during the late 1940s was handled with greater sensitivity, spearheaded by images of returning veterans overcoming obstacles. Films such as The Best Years of Our Lives in 1946 and The Men (1950) focused appropriately on the shock of becoming disabled and accurately portrayed the rehabilitation process. During the civil rights era in the 1960s, people with physical impairments appeared in the mainstream, facing obstacles to live independently and by the late 1980s, more realistic portrayals evolved e. g. Born on the Fourth of July (1989) highlighting the trauma of coping with paralysis. In more recent years, representation of disability has been portrayed using positive images in films including My Left Foot and Gaby – A True Story (1987). However, negative themes of villainous disability continued e. g. The Fugitive (1993) which included Captain Hook imagery. According to Byrd (1989) between 1986 and 1988, sixty seven people with disabilities were portrayed in 53 of 302 films (17. 5%). More than half were victimised and less than one in five were heroes. Zola (1985) described the media as metaphorical, representing disabled people as a menace to society and victims. Bogdan et al in Safran (1998) examined the symbolism of disabilities in horror films and emphasized that portrayal of scarred, deformed and physically handicapped monsters in film, lead to a fear of people with disabilities. Furthermore, this could manifest as prejudice and unintentional social isolation. Films such as The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923), Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931) and Peter Pan (1953) exploit disabilities to create fear in the viewers as a consequence of negative imagery. Longmore (1985) examined a variety of negative themes and images across a range of films and concluded that villainous and evil characteristics are reflected in three different stereotypes; disabilities as punishment for evil, persons with disabilities as embittered by their fate, and persons with disabilities resenting able-bodied individuals whom they wish to destroy. According to Whittington-Walsh (2002) in 1932, Tod Browning made a film called Freaks which demonstrated a visual display of ‘normalcy’ of the characters, showcased by actors who were physically or mentally disabled. The film attempted to project the real oppression they experienced from socially created attitudes and stigmas. However, it was a box office disaster and banned in England for 40 years. Critics argued that it perpetuated the stereotypical image of people with disabilities as psychotic killers, seeking revenge for their disempowerment. Whittington-Walsh (2002) suggested that what truly offends and shocks audiences is not only the visibility of the actors with disabilities, but the fact that the actors had no shame in showcasing their diversity. Furthermore, it is within the criticism of Freaks where institutional rejection of human diversity is found, not in the images Brown showcased. Whittington-Walsh (2002) refers to the term idiot savant which has been linked with disability and success. This image is used by the film industry as the ‘norm’ for disability representation. Charlton (1998) in Whittington-Walsh (2002) argues that if a person with a disability is successful, they are seen to be brave or special. Films including Forest Gump, My Left Foot and Rain Man portray characters with disabilities as savants. It is argued by Charlton (1998) in Whittington-Walsh that a constant portrayal of characters as savants serves to diminish the abilities and lives of people with disabilities. Furthermore, the films discussed also include themes of isolation and pathology, which relates to the idea of a ‘cure’, as evident through a medical model way of thinking, which ultimately links disability with illness. Wardle et al (no date) presented findings which showed that broadcasters often fall into stereotypical portrayals of disfigurement, for example as reclusive, devious or villainous characters. Factual coverage can also often be overly ‘medicalised’ with documentaries presenting them as quirks of nature, abnormal or in need of surgery. Furthermore, people with facial disfigurement are rarely given a voice and are often positioned as the object of a voyeuristic gaze. Schroeder (1998) notes, to gaze implies more than to look at it signifies a psychological relationship of power, in which the gazer is superior to the object of the gaze (Schroeder, 1998). Wardle et al(no date) suggests that issues such as stigma are generally neglected for the sake of programmes which focus on unusual or extraordinary disfigurements, in order to attract high viewing figures. Goffman (1968) describes stigma as a physical or social attribute or mark that devalues a person’s social identity which consequently disqualifies them from complete social acceptance. Furthermore, stigmatized groups include ethnic minorities, the physically handicapped and the facially disfigured. Moreover, although there are face to face differences between the groups, there is a common thread relating to obstacles, prejudice and discrimination. It is evident through research conducted by Wardle et al (no date) that recent understandings of disability have shifted to the social model largely due to disability rights movement. This movement was the start of developmental changes within society and to further support disabled people to gain equal social status and to eliminate oppression and discrimination. In addition, The Disability Discrimination Act emerged. Disability activists acknowledge ‘difference’ but identify the problem as societies who are unable to adapt in order to accommodate difference, rather than the individual who has the disability. The research concluded that both audiences with and without disfigurement wanted more every day, informed and balanced coverage. In interview, Margaret, 58, revealed that she had been disfigured for 54 years, but had never seen or read anything which portrays a positive image of a disfigured woman. Wardle, et al,no date) Norden et al (2007) suggests that in television and film there is evidence that representation is gradually undergoing a process of change which reflects social change. However, according to Wardle et al (no date) while the traditional side show context largely died out in the nineteenth century, the impulse to look/curiosity and fascination and the spectacle of disabled bodies are still evident in modern media coverage. Cumberbatch and Negrine (1992). carried out a study which highlighted that factual programming did represent disabled people and 16% of all factual programmes included disabled people. Lucas (2003) who was diagnosed with a rare genetic condition called Cherubism discusses her appearance on a television programme called What Are You Staring At? This is a BBC documentary on the subject of facial disfigurement. She reflects on her personal decision not to have plastic surgery and why she felt it important that society should consider prejudice towards people with disfigurement, rather than just concentrating on trying to fix or cure disfigured faces. To put it simply, my attitude was Yeah, lets look at the medical options and if people want surgery, thats fine. But lets also look at building up their self-esteem. Wouldn’t it be nice if we also worked at making a more tolerant society too? Lucas (2003) Lucas (2003) suggested that it is not her face that is the problem, but peoples prejudices. Furthermore she feels that we live in a society that says physical difference is bad and beauty is good. But this has resulted in disfigured and disabled people being treated like second class citizens because their bodies are different and they are seen as less than human. Moreover, societal ideals that cause us to question self image are nothing more than learned traditions and customs passed down through generations. According to Erin (2005) in KASA( 2012) who suffers from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome; typical stereotypes that characters in the media fulfill and have been fulfilling for decades on end, disabled innocence (Tiny Tim), disabled inspiration (Helen Keller), and disabled evil (Captain Hook). Furthermore, unfortunately still today, few movies seem to contain the element of disability at the end. The movie usually concludes with the character with being cured or dying, leading the viewer to the assumption that life with a disability can in no way be rewarding or fulfilling. Moreover, most media representation in unrealistic in relation to portrayal of life with a disability. Falsehoods regarding disabilities are spoon fed to society today, only to be regurgitated as ridiculous pressures on individuals with disabilities to conform to a misleading societal standard of beauty†¦ So just how has over a century of media lies and scattered truths affected us as disabled individuals? Is our self perception warped and self esteem damaged as a result of false images and stereotypes? †¦(Erin, 2005 in KASA, 2012) McEachran (2012) who has a facial disfigurement (non malignant growth on one side of his face) reflects on a recent episode of Top Gear, where TV presenter Jeremy Clarkson compared the size of a Japanese car to people with growths on their faces; mimicking Joseph Merrick (the Elephant Man) in the process: â€Å"You know sometimes you meet someone and they have a growth on their face and it is bigger than their face†¦ one of those really ugly things†. McEachran (2012) strongly believes that the crass remarks from Clarkson has reignited the stereotypes and phenotypes that have been socially and culturally constructed around the fallacy that there is a difference between a ‘figured face’ (whatever that means) and a ‘disfigured face’. Furthermore, TV and film are partly responsible for making disfigurements be seen as something unapproachable and not aesthetic to look at. Pearson (2012) was born with Neurofibromatosis. A rare condition that caused benign growths to grow on his head and face). He recently took part in the channel 4 programme; ‘Beauty and the Beast –Ugly Face of Prejudice’, in order to convince people to see beyond the exterior and judge others by their characters rather than their appearance. This paper has highlighted that representations of disfigurement in the media have changed dramatically over the past three centuries and consequently, has been responsible for some c hange in relation to societal attitudes. Television has been responsible for making the invisible, visible, as evidenced through more recent programmes, where people with facial disfigurements have been given the opportunity to give an insight into their lives and ultimately portray a more positive identity, while attempting to break down negative, stereotypical perceptions. Reflection In my early childhood, I remember becoming friends with a girl, Emma, whose face and body was predominately covered with red/purple marking. She walked with a visible limb and had a curled and deformed hand. I innocently asked why she had these ‘differences’ and she told me that they were just birth marks and that I couldn’t catch them by being her friend. Our friendship continued for many years and after that point, I never thought about her as ‘different’ and accepted her for who she was, my lovely friend. I now realise that this perception was through a child’s eyes because as a young woman my attitude changed. I began to experience a deep sense of pity for people with disabilities, particularly in relation to facial disfigurement and this was prevalent prior to completing the module. I feel that this pity may be a result of my own insecurities, and lack of confidence, as well as the realization that I don’t believe I would have the coping strategies to deal with a facial disfigurement. Furthermore, I have been drawn in by media portrayal of what ‘beauty’ looks like. Throughout the module, my perceptions have completely changed after listening to the experiences of people with facial disfigurement. I now consider that beauty comes from within and having a facial disfigurement should not have negative implications. I agree with Lucas (2003) that learned traditions and customs are passed down through generations. Consequently, educating children from a young age about impairments could have a profound impact on the way people with impairments are perceived in the future. I believe that with knowledge and understanding comes power, resulting in a more positive approach to disability, achievable through education and as a result passed on to other generations, ultimately challenging the term ‘disabled identity’.

Edukasyon Para Sa Bayan Essay Example for Free

Edukasyon Para Sa Bayan Essay It was just a normal afternoon in the gym during a pickup game. The score was tied, game point. Nate goes up for the dunk and it goes in! When he comes back down to land, something didn’t feel right. His ankle was hurting really bad and was starting to swell. He couldn’t even walk on it. Nate sprained his ankle. Most ankle sprains happen when you make a rapid shifting movement with your foot planted, such as when you play soccer or get tackled in football. Often the ankle rolls outward and the foot turns inward. This causes the ligaments on the outside of the ankle to stretch and tear. Less often, the ankle rolls inward and the foot turns outward. This damages the ligaments on the inside of the ankle. An ankle sprain can range from mild to severe, depending on how badly the ligament is damaged and how many ligaments are injured. With a mild sprain, the ankle may be tender, swollen, and stiff. But it usually feels stable, and you can walk with little pain. A more serious sprain might include bruising and tenderness around the ankle, and walking is painful. In a severe ankle sprain, the ankle is unstable and may feel wobbly. You cant walk, because the ankle gives out and may be very painful. With most sprains, you feel pain right away at the site of the tear. Often the ankle starts to swell immediately and may bruise. The ankle area is usually tender to touch, and it hurts to move it. In more severe sprains, you may hear and/or feel something tear, along with a pop or snap. You will probably have extreme pain at first and will not be able to walk or even put weight on your foot. Usually, the more pain and swelling you have, the more severe your ankle sprain is and the longer it will take to heal. Preventing this injury is not that hard. According to emedicinehealth. com wearing the proper shoes, keeping the ankles strong and flexible, consider wearing ankle tape or an ankle brace, and making sure playing field or home environment is clear of any obstacles that could lead to injury. Healthscout. com says to maintain a regular exercise program, wearing stable shoes, stretching calf muscles before and after exercise, and maintain a healthy diet to prevent injury. But sometimes all these measures do not work and you will have an ankle injury and there are risks of reinjuring. How can we minimize recurring injuries? Brandon Hemphill, James D. Whitworth, and Rita F. Smith say that using external support during physical activity significantly reduces the likelihood of spraining your ankle. A study done by University of Georgia suggests that the different ways people move their hip and knee joints may influence the risk of re-injury. If you have ankle sprains, you may have a problem with the way you move, and we think we can change movement through rehabilitation, said Cathleen Brown, lead author of the study and assistant professor in the department of kinesiology in the College of Education. Past studies on ankle sprains have shown that some people are able to return to sports or physical activities without a problem. Brown and her team, which includes associate professor Kathy J. Simpson, also in the kinesiology department, want to know why some recover completely. One theory for explaining those divergent paths is that a person comes up with good strategies to move, land, balance and not get re-injured, Brown said. Maybe the injured people dont use the same landing strategies, or their strategies arent as effective, Brown said, adding that the study was a snapshot in time, not a long-term follow-up. By the time subjects were included in the research study, they have usually already injured themselves. We dont know if they are this way because of the injury, or if they got this injury because they land this way. There are two different initial treatments for an ankle sprain. One is RICE, consisting of rest, ice, compression, and elevation. The other is PRINCE, consisting of protection, rest, ice, NSAIDs; or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, compression, and elevation. The physician may suggest to keep all or some of your weight off your ankle and will give you crutches or a walker. An ankle brace, air stirrup, hiking boots, or other form of ankle support should be worn during this time to protect the ligaments. Stretching exercises should be continued daily and especially before and after physical activities to prevent re-injury. Even after your ankle feels better, continue with muscle-strengthening exercises and balance and control exercises several times a week to keep your ankles strong. The timing and type of rehab exercises may vary according to your doctors or physical therapists preferences. Anti-inflammatory pain medications such as ibuprofen and naproxen are used to reduce the pain and combat swelling. Ankle sprains are commonly misdiagnosed. This is because the two major types of sprained ankles-high ankle sprains and lateral ankle sprains-often look the same, even though they affect entirely different ligaments. The less common type, a high ankle sprain, is often mistaken for a lateral sprain. Misdiagnosis can delay getting the right treatment-and that can impair recovery. One problem is that the symptoms of high ankle sprains parallel those of the lateral ankle sprain, which occurs in the lower ankle area, says Marque Allen, DPM, FACFAS, foot and ankle surgeon from San Antonio, Texas and a Fellow of the American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons. Pain, swelling, limited motion, and bruising in the entire ankle region can occur in both high ankle sprains and lateral ankle sprains. The difference lies in where the injury occurs and which ligaments are involved. High ankle sprains can get complicated, because this region has five ligaments connecting two bones in the leg, compared with three ligaments that can be affected in lateral ankle sprains, says Dr. Allen. In diagnosing an ankle sprain, its important for physicians to understand how the injury occurred. Lateral sprains are caused by the foot turning inward, whereas high ankle sprains are the result of the foot being forced outward. Other complications include ankle synovitis, which is inflammation of the inner lining of the ankle joint capsule, persistent swelling of the ankle, lateral ankle instability, and nerve injuries. There are many different exercises one can do during the rehabilitation period. For example, range of motion exercises, strength exercises, and activity-specific exercises. Proprioception exercises and other balance exercises can help you recover more quickly and should actually be performed as part of a prevention program. Poor balance is a good predictor of future ankle sprains. After an ankle injury, balance training is essential to recovery. In addition to our eyes and inner ears, there are special receptors in our joints, proprioceptors, which provide information about our position in space. By balancing on one leg, you can reinforce and strengthen those receptors in the ankle. Balance on the affected leg and hold steady for 15 seconds. Continue to challenge your ankle by balancing with your eyes closed, or with your head turning from side to side. If you play soccer, balance on your sprained ankle and kick a soccer ball against a wall. If you play basketball, balance and shoot or practice bounce passes. You can get creative with your exercise to match your sport. The Ottawa ankle rules are a set of guidelines for clinicians to aid them in deciding if a patient with foot or ankle pain should be offered X-rays to diagnose a possible bone fracture. Before the introduction of the rules most patients with ankle injuries would have been X-rayed. However only about 15% of X-rays were positive for fracture, other patients had sprains or other injuries. As a result many unnecessary X-rays were taken, which was costly, time consuming and a possible health risk. The rules state that X-rays are only required if there is any pain in the malleolar zone and any one of the following: * Bone tenderness along the distal 6 cm of the posterior edge of the tibia or tip of the medial malleolus, OR * Bone tenderness along the distal 6 cm of the posterior edge of the fibula or tip of the lateral malleolus, OR * An inability to bear weight both immediately and in the emergency department for four steps. The Ottawa foot rules are for assessing whether a foot X-ray series is indicated. It states that they are indicated if there is any pain in the midfoot zone and any one of the following: * Bone tenderness at the base of the fifth metatarsal (for foot injuries), OR * Bone tenderness at the navicular bone (for foot injuries), OR * An inability to bear weight both immediately and in the emergency department for four steps. It is best to refrain from returning to full activity before complete healing of the ankle has occurred in order to avoid re-injury and possible complications. Ankle sprains take an average of 6 weeks to heal but can take can up to 4 months, depending on the severity. After returning to your sport, you have to make sure you take all precautions. Especially by making sure your ankle is supported by a brace or by tape. Some studies have shown that braces are more effective than tape, though. Either one is better than no support. In conclusion, preventing yourself from injury is a lot easier than people think. But if injury does occur, don’t assume you will be out for 4 months. People heal differently and how long healing takes depends on the severity of the injury. Works Cited American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons: Sprained Ankles Can Be Complicated and Misdiagnosed. India Pharma News (2012). Http://galenet. galegroup. com. ezproxy. aacc. edu. 2 Mar. 2012. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. Hemphill, Brandon, James Whitworth, and Rita Smith. Q / How Can We Minimize Recurrent Ankle Sprains? Journal of Family Practice 60. 12 (2011): 759. Http://galenet. galegroup. com. ezproxy. aacc. edu. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. UGA Study Suggests Key to Avoiding Ankle Re-injury May Be in the Hips and Knees. NewsRx Health Science (2011): 321. Http://galenet. galegroup. com. ezproxy. aacc. edu. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. Ankle Sprain Causes, Symptoms, Treatments, Recovery. WebMD. WebMD, 19 May 2011. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. http://www. webmd. com/a-to-z-guides/ankle-sprain-overview. Health Encyclopedia Diseases and Conditions. Ankle Sprains. The HealthScout Network, Inc, 1 Apr. 2009. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. http://www. healthscout. com/ency/1/572/main. html. Cunha, John P. Read What Your Physician Is Reading on Medscape. EMedicineHealth. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. http://www. emedicinehealth. com/ankle_sprain/article_em. htm.

Major Causes Of Information Systems Failure Information Technology Essay

Major Causes Of Information Systems Failure Information Technology Essay What are the major causes of information systems failures. What strategies can organisations take to face the challenges and ensure the success. An information system project according to Ewusi-Mensah (1997) is any information technology project intended to meet the information processing need of an organization. In Critical issues in abandoned information system projects, Ewusi-Mensah(1997) stated that information system projects implementation requires collaboration of Information system staff that deploys and educate on the use of the software to drive the project, end users and management. It is a group-oriented activity organized and executed in teams and therefore subject to the unpredictability of group dynamics, interactions, coordination, and communication ( Ewusi-Mensah ,1997). An information system is a set of elements (people, data, and procedures) working together to provide useful information (Senn, 1990, p8). Also, information system (IS) is any set of information technology and peoples activities using that technology to backup operations, management, and decision-making (SEI Report, Glossary ). In a wider sense, the word information system is often used to refer to the relationship between people, algorithmic processes, data and technology. Therefore, the term is used to refer not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes (Kroenke, D. M. 2008). An information system consists of computers, instructions, stored facts, people and procedures. A systems failure occurs when a system does not meet its requirements or when the level of discontentment with a system increases to the level that there is no enough provision to sustain it. Â  Information system project failure may be as a result of its inability to meet users requirements and/or overruns pertaining to budget or completion time (Yeo, K. T. 2002). Studies have shown that many failed projects are over budget, some by as much as 189%. May, L (1998) in Major causes of software failure stated that only one-sixth (16.67%) of projects are finished as schedule and within budget. An information system failure can cause financial loss, commercial embarrassment, loss of customers and revenue streams, sanctions and the loss of staff morale or stakeholder allegiance in an organization. Examples of system failures includes an alarm system that fails to sound when pressed, an automated door that fails to open and close on its own accord on approach, ammunition that detonates pre maturely, and other similar conditions. This article discusses the causes of information system project failures and strategies organizations can take to face the challenges and ensure success. The Standish group (1995) in (Yeo, K. T. 2002) classified project outcome as Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3. According to the group, 16.2%,52.7% and 31.1% of projects fall into Types 1,2 and 3 classes respectively. A successful project classified as the Type 1 projects are those that were successfully implemented within the stated time and budget with all required features and functionality specified. The challenged projects classified as the Type 2 projects are those that suffer budget overruns and/ or program slips thereby failing to completely achieve its goal even though they are completed and operational while Type 3 project classified as the Impaired projects are those cancelled or abandoned at some point during the development cycle The Standish group (1995) in (Yeo, K. T. 2002). Technical failure may not necessarily be the cause of project impairment, lack of adoption of a technically faultless Information system project by end users or corporate management consequently resulting in its lack of use or underutilization denotes failure (Yeo, K. T. 2002). From this view point, Information system is said to be a socio-technical system. Land and Hirschheim (1983) described an information sys tem as a social system that uses information technology. This can be explained in the sense that as a technical system, a system that fails in an organization can be successfully implemented in another organization while as a social system an Information system can be successfully implemented in an organization while the implementation of another information system can result in failure (Davies G. B. et al, 1992). Information System as a type of socio-technical system The mediating concept between actions and technology is refer to as information systems.(Beynon-Davies P. 2009). The technical system dimension consists of both operational and functional features. The operational features apply to the technology(effectiveness of the hardware or software as well as the friendliness of the technologys user interfaces) while the functional features relate to the performance relative to expected functionality . Technology as a component of the technical system refers to hardware, software and other related technology. This pertains to the functionality of the system, whether it is up or down when a person needs to use it. User interfaces refers to the link between the human user and the software/hardware technology (input screens, output screens, paper input forms and paper output reports). Error rates in the transfer of data from one medium to another and the time that users require to become familiar with the system all constitute indicators of performance of the implemented system while Information requirements as a technical system component refers to the ability of the Information system implemented to give new capabilities than the one being replaced. Careful study of the organization to know its information need is essential ( Davies G. B. et al). The social system refers to the features of organizational setting which exist in an organization even as people enter and leave the organization. The components of this system include; acceptance/rejection of the technical system, theories in use, measures of performance to expectation and the developmental process of the system. Rejection or underutilization may be based on the premise that the introduction of new technology is instrumental to deskilling or job loss (Davies G. B. et al, 1992). Characteristic features of Information system project Information system projects are capital and labour intensive usually requiring a huge sum of money to implement. Its failure can cause a huge financial loss to an organization and therefore there is need for adequate planning before its implementation to ensure that desired expectations are met. An information system is a type of socio-technical system which is critical to the survival and well-being of companies. As a result, the right technology must be deployed and the end users educated on its use and benefits. Also, Brooks in Ewusi-Mensah (1997) stated that IS projects are conceptual in nature (i.e. it is pure thought stuff which is invisible and unvisualizable). In addition, there are certain risks and uncertainties such as large project size, unfamiliarity with the new technology and unstable information requirements associated with projects that are difficult to assess prior to the start of the project. IS projects as stated earlier are group oriented requiring members from different backgrounds and therefore require a high degree of coordination and clear lines of communication to ensure success Ewusi-Mensah (1997). Reasons for Information System implementation To increase productivity in order to maintain competitive advantage To enhance business operations through the re-engineering of an organisations processes Changes in activities of an organisation or in the nature of the organisation. Technological Changes can lead to new production processes or using alternative materials in the manufacturing process Classification of system failures There are four major categories of Information system failure according to Lyytinen and Hirschheim (1987). The categories are as follows; Process failure: this occurs when an Information system project cannot be developed within an allocated budget and/or time schedule. The project development results in overspending in both cost and time. Correspondence failure: this occurs when the objectives and goals of the systems design are not met. Interaction failure: this is attributed to the level of end-user usage or adoption or acceptance of the implemented information system. User attitudes, data packets, user satisfaction and the degree of adoption are measures of usage of information system usage. Expectation failure: this is the inability of a system to meet its stakeholders requirement, expectations or values Another classification of failures according to Ben Meadowcroft in Why Systems fail is; Hard ware design/specification error Software developmental error: this is error due to imperfect software development as a result of inadequate test run of the program and poor user interface among others End user error: this arise a result of inadequate training and/or user resistance. Majors causes of information systems failure Unclear goals: lack of well defined project goals and objectives which is key to the success of any IS project development. There is also need to state clearly the information need of an organization and also the adoption process before attempting to introduce an information system(Lucas in Davies G. B. et al 1992) Improper reporting structure/Miscommunication: since the development of large IS projects is the work of a team drawn from diverse groups of people with responsibilities to ensure the projects success which includes IS staff, end users and senior management, there is need for the establishment of clear lines of communication and well defined lines of authority and responsibility among team members. Communication in project teams is essential to sort out dispute concerning requirements of design decisions among project members (Curtis et al 1988). Inept/incompetent leadership: Poor management of the project and lack of good leadership responsible for coordination and control, measurement of progress and making of vital decisions at different phases of the project. Poor technology base or infrastructure: lack of adequate technological base needed for successful implementation of the kind of systems development being considered. According to Land in G. B. Davis et al, the distance between the existing system and the replacement system is essential for the success of an information system. Poor project management: this has to do with inadequate measurement system to measure progress and equally identify potential risks in time to mitigate them. Lack of technical competence: the technological know-how of information systems staff is very vital to the success of IS projects as lack of familiarity with an information technology new to the IS staff is contributory to IS project failure. If a user is improperly trained then the likelihood of them making major errors is increased due to their lack of knowledge of the system. Failures by reason of lack of training should not be regarded as an error due to the individual operator as is likely with a poorly designed user interface, but as a mistake by the management. Scope creep: projects excessively grand in scope usually have higher risks and higher complexities and therefore more prone to failure. Scope is the initial blueprint of an implementation plan. Faulty hardware faulty hardware can bring about serious system failure. This factor is then again an essential one that should be given due consideration together with the more common software errors. Faulty hardware should be taken into thought when designing the systems in order to try and reduce the impact of the failure. Hardware failure is not as likely to occur as software faults but can be as damaging. Poor selection decision of project team members: the project team composition is also vital for the success of the information system project. Strategies organisations can take to ensure success of information system projects. Firstly, to ensure success of information system projects there is need for a clear and well defined IS goal. Every member of the IS project management team as well as stakeholders should know the specific information requirement of the organization as well as how to go about satisfying it. This is important to guide the information requirements phase of the development process. Failure in this area will lead to fragmented efforts and lack of focus in assembling facts to guide the rest of the development (Curtis et al 1988). Secondly, the selection of competent and qualified staff to serve as members of IS project team is very vital for successful project implementation (Brooks, 1981). Team members should be those with real prior experience and who are equally familiar with the technology being deployed. Improved training of the end users will significantly reduce system failures and improve the integrity of data stored on the computer systems. The project team should consist of the most successful people of the organization (Nah et al, 2001). Lockheed Martin, a leading aeronautical group, stated that one of its keys to success was assembling a team capable of making and executing changes required (Stedman, 1999) Also, the imposition of structure on the developmental effort of the project helps to guide it to successful completion. It involves the division of the project into phases which helps the project team realize what deliverables for each stage are and to know the extent to which they have been met. It is also important that clear lines of authority, communication and responsibility among team members be drawn. This is important since the team members are drawn from diverse units. Selection of competent leaders who will ensure that proper management and control practices are adhered to and enforced in the implementation process of an Information system is vital. Adequate safeguards and oversight by management is necessary to ensure technical personnels compliance with accepted industry standards for reporting and dealing with problems uncovered in any phase of system development. The leader should be one with both application-domain knowledge and software knowledge. There should also be regular periodic meetings to discuss the systems development effort. A successful implementation of a project is only attainable when high-level executives possess a strong commitment to the project (Davenport, 2000). Senior executives at Farmland Industries demonstrated its support to project team members by providing financial incentives to motivate the project team members. The technological infrastructure available in a company needs to be critically assessed to determine it is adequate to support the kind of system development that is to be implemented. Care should be taken not to embark on IS project development until management have the assurance that the companys technological base is adequate. Assurance from the Management Information System management should be taken to reduce the risk s and uncertainties associated with system development works. There is need for the maintenance of scope. The ability to maintain scope is related to planning and this is attainable for companies both small and large. Geishecker (1999) stated that Colgate-Palmolive Company itemised scope maintenance as a contributory factor to their success. The roll out approach for the implementation of the information system project is a very important consideration under scope maintenance. There are two approaches namely the big bang approach and the gradual (phased) rollout approach. Both approaches have their prons and cons. Oil giant Chevron attributes a phased roll out to the successful implementation of an information system project. Home Depot has also successfully implemented several modules of an Information system using the phased roll out approach (Mearian, 2000). Phased roll-out approach though more expensive and usually taking longer time, offer reduced business risk (Davenport, 2000). Internal readiness/training is also vital for the successful implementation of an information system project. The most common failure factor recorded was that of readiness for change. All employees must be trained on the new system in order to prevent underutilization of the system. Also managers must understand the implication of the system and the changes it will cause. If managers are not in agreement or cooperation, then there will be no eagerness or buy-in and this may result to resistance or lack of adoption of the new system (Davenport, 2000). Planning/development /budgeting are necessary for the success of an information system project. Planning should be intimately identified with maintaining scope during an implementation. Ineffective planning results in cost overruns and development delays. Home Depot, Lockerheed Martin and Mead Corporation are examples of companies attributing success to planning. As stated earlier, many projects especially failed ones are over budget, some as much as 189 percent. Adequate testing of the system is a key element for the successful implementation of the system. It is reported that Gillette Company withstood five months of severe testing procedures before their successful go-live date (CIO, 2000). Also, Eastman Kodak was able to complete what at the time was the largest implementation on record as a result of testing (PR Newswire, 2001). Whirlpool Corporation attributes inadequate testing as its single reason for unsuccessful and costly implementation. The company gambled on its testing program by cutting down the amount of time needed to test run the new system before implementing it in a bid to meet deadlines Conclusion The goal of this was to identify the major causes of information systems failures and strategies organisations can take to face the challenges and ensure the success? Towards this goal different articles and journals were examine. The project team compostion, management support , internal readiness of the employees, existence of technolgical infrastructure able to support and sustain the new system to be implemented, well defined goals which is in line with the organizations goal, adquately tested system, clear and well defined reporting structure and good leadership are all vital ingredients to ensure the successful implementation as well as utilization of a newly deployed information system. It is to be noted that even though a system technically faultless, underutilization as a result of lack of full acceptance or understanding of how to adopt the information system for day to day operation amounts to failure of the information system. For this reason, the management must enlighte n the users of the deployed information system on the need for the change as well as attached benefits. Finally, though appropraite measures should be put in place to prevent failure of the information system project, they may still occur; but when they occur, a system failure analysis which is an investigation to determine the underlying reasons for the nonconformance to the system requirement in order to identify the causes of nonconformance equally recommend appropraite correction measures. This is because failure could have benefits expecially in relation to learning,especially in understanding the developmental process of a system and steps to take to prevent failure of future Information System development projects. Word Count = 2,932 REFERNECES Mearian, L. (2000), CEO: SAP installation caused problems, ComputerWorld, Vol. 34 No. 48, p. 20. Nah, F.F., Lau, J.L. and Kuang, J. (2001), Critical factors for successful implementation of enterprise systems, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 285-96. Ben Meadowcrof, Why Systems Fail. http://www.benmeadowcroft.com/reports/systemfailure/ Beynon-Davies P. (2009). The language of informatics: the nature of information systems. International Journal of Information Management. 29(2). 92-103 CIO (2000), Does ERP build a better business?, 15 February, pp. 114-24. Davenport, T. (2000), Mission Critical Realizing the Promise of Enterprise Systems, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA. Geishecker, L. (1999), ERP vs best of breed, Strategic Management, March, pp. 63-6. Land, F. and Hirschheim, R. Participative Systems Design: Rationale, Tools and Techniques, Journal of Applied Systems Analysis, Vol. 10, 1983. Lyytinen, K. and Hirschheim, R. Information Systems Failures A Survey and Classification of the Empirical Literature, Oxford Surveys in IT, Vol. 4, 1987, pp. 257-309. May, L. (1998), Major causes of software project failure, Crosstalk, July. The Standish Group. The CHAOS Report (1995), 1995. http://www.standishgroup.com/chaos.html.

Lisa Bright And Dark :: essays research papers

When someone has a nearly "perfect" life, it’s hard to believe that person could be going out of his or her mind. Lisa Bright and Dark, by John Neufeld, explores the world of mental illness through Lisa Shilling, a sixteen year old who believes she is going crazy. Though she and her friends know this, she is unable to receive help because her parents think she is making it up. With no adult help, the problem has to be taken into the hands of Lisa and her three teenage friends. 	Lisa Shilling starts off as any normal teenager, attending school, going out with friends, and even dating. As the novel progresses, Lisa slips into dark, depressive moods on occasional days, and then into depression altogether. Lisa’s friends notice her change and take it into their own hands to give her "therapy" because Lisa’s parents are not willing to accept her sickness. As the depression progresses, many frightening incidents happen, but Lisa’s friends stick with her, helping to give strength to Lisa as well as themselves. 	Lisa’s friends stick with her when no one else will. One incident happened where Lisa went into an almost trance-like episode and then proceeded to attack one of her three friends. Even through the difficult times, Lisa’s friends would not give up on her. The basic theme of friendship is expressed throughout the novel. It is never told exactly what has caused Lisa Shilling to slip into this state of depression, which helps to make the atmosphere of the novel very mysterious. Just when it appears that Lisa is getting better, another episode occurs. The story is disturbing, being set around Lisa’s school and home. With other characters in the story, such as Lisa’s parents, causing conflicts with Lisa receiving proper treatment, the story is given a disturbing yet realistic feel. 	Instead of the story being told from the main character’s point of view, it is instead told by one of Lisa’s three friends who is trying to help. This keeps the reader from being able to tell exactly what is going on in Lisa Shilling’s head.

Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure :: essays research papers

Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure Abscisic acid is a single compound unlike the auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. It was called "abscisin II" originally because it was thought to play a major role in abscission of fruits. Though ABA generally is thought to play mostly inhibitory roles, it has many promoting functions as well. In 1963, abscisic acid was first identified and characterized by Frederick Addicott and his associates. They were studying compounds responsible for the abscission of fruits (cotton). Two compounds were isolated and called abscisin I and abscisin II. Abscisin II is presently called abscisic acid. ABA is a naturally occurring compound in plants. It is a sesquiterpenoid (15-carbon) which is partially produced via a certain pathway (mevalonic pathway) in chloroplasts and other plastids. Because it is sythesized partially in the chloroplasts, it makes sense that biosynthesis primarily occurs in the leaves. The production of ABA is accentuated by stresses such as water loss and freezing temperatures. It is believed that biosynthesis occurs indirectly through the production of carotenoids. Carotenoids are pigments produced by the chloroplast which have 40 carbons. Breakdown of these carotenoids occurs in a complex mechanism which produces ABA. The transport of ABA can occur in both xylem and phloem tissues. It can also be translocated through paranchyma cells. The movement of abscisic acid in plants does not exhibit polarity like auxins. ABA is capable of moving both up and down the stem. The various roles of ABA are †¢ Stimulates the closure of stomata (water stress brings about an increase in ABA synthesis). †¢ Inhibits shoot growth but will not have as much affect on roots or may even promote growth of roots. †¢ Induces seeds to synthesize storage proteins. †¢ Has some effect on induction and maintanance of dormancy. (This information taken from http://www.plant-hormones.info/abscisicacid.htm) Stomatal Closure †¢ Addition of ABA to the growth medium (a mixture of vermiculite and peat moss) causes the closure of the stomates within 3 h and an increase in the Pos of the protoplasts of the aba1 plants to 50 mm s-1. †¢ Arrival of ABA in the leaves appears to signal stomatal closure as well as a change in the Pos of the plasma membranes. †¢ We hypothesize that under non-stress conditions ABA is required to maintain a population of actively functioning aquaporins at the plasma membrane.

Nelson Mandela Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"There is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to pass through the valley of the shadow of death again and again before we reach the mountain top of our desires†. These are the words of a man, Nelson Mandela, who fought for something that many would shy away from. He led the anti-apartheid movement, became the president of the African National Congress Youth League, and later became the president of South Africa winning the Nobel Peace Prize.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1942 started Nelson Mandela’s participation in the racial oppression in South Africa. He joined the African National Congress (ANC), led by Anton Lembede. In 1944, Mandela joined up with Walter Sisulu, William Nkomo, Oliver R. Tambo, and Ashby P. Mda to form the African National Congress Youth League. Quickly, Mandela became the secretary of the ANCYL in 1947 because of his consistent effort and disciplined work. In 1949 the Programme of Action was accepted as authorized ANC policy. The Programme of Action supported boycott, strike, civil disobedience, and non-co-operation. Nelson Mandela became the president of the ANCYL in 1952. â€Å"Under his leadership the ANC began sponsoring nonviolent protests, strikes, boycotts, marches, and other acts of civil disobedience and in the process becoming a target to police harassment and arrest.† This came to be known as the Defiance Campaign. This marked the beginning of mass resistance to apartheid. In 1959 a small group of ANC members broke off and started their own group called the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). And on March 21, 1960, 20,000 PAC protesters left there homes without passes and joined together in Sharpeville. The police, thinking that the group would become unfriendly, opened fire on the protesters. Sixty-Nine Blacks were killed and another 186 were wounded. After this attack, the South African Government outlawed the ANC and PAC organizations. But this would not stop Mandela and his companions from fighting the apartheid. In 1961 Mandela helped establish the ANC’s military wing, known as the Umkhonto we Sizwe -Spear of the Nation-, also known as the M-plan or MK plan named after Mandela himself. He was named its commander in chief and was sent to Algeria for military training. In that time 200 acts of sabotage took place. When he returned in 1962, he was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison for illegal ... ...ed on majority rule. Mandela would lead South Africa as its president until 1999 when he stepped down and Thabo Mbeki was selected president. Mandela worked his way up through the ranks of the ANC and ANCYL, leading the anti-apartheid movement. What he accomplished while in the ANCYL and in prison changed the way that South Africa is today. Without Mandela blacks would still only be able to use certain bathrooms and would only be able to go in certain places designated for them. This 55-year journey from the African National Congress, to prison, and finally to becoming president and winning the Nobel Peace Prize has made Nelson Mandela a living legend. But in the words of Nelson Mandela himself, I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom comes responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended. (pg.625)

Immanuel Kant Essay

Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics, Natural Rights Theories, and Religious Ethics A â€Å"utilitarian† argument, in the strict sense, is one what alleges that we ought to do something because it will produce more total happiness than doing anything else would. Act utilitarianism (AU) is the moral theory that holds that the morally right action, the act that we have a moral duty to do, is the one that will (probably) maximize â€Å"utility† (happiness, welfare, well-being). AU is not to be confused with egoism. The egoist really only cares about his own happiness. AU says that everyone’s happiness counts equally. Suppose that executing Joseph would in the long run produce more total happiness than letting him live would. Then according to AU, we ought to execute Joseph. Now if Joseph is a convicted serial murderer who would probably escape and commit more murders if we tried to incarcerate him, then it’s reasonable to think that executing him would be the right thing to do. But what if he has committed no crime? What if he is simply an extremely irritating person with no friends or loved ones, and the many people with whom he has contact in his life are very sensitive and dislike him intensely? Since more total happiness is produced if Joseph dies (the increased happiness of the many who no longer have to endure him outweighs his unhappiness about dying) than if he lives, AU says that it’s right to kill him. This example illustrates what is probably the main objection to AU: it tells us to violate rights/commit injustices when doing so is necessary to produce the greatest total amount of happiness. A â€Å"utilitarian† argument in a looser sense is one that alleges that we ought to do something because of its â€Å"good consequences† (or not do something because of its â€Å"bad consequences†), where good/bad consequences needn’t be limited to what increases or decreases happiness, but might include other things that a strict utilitarian theory attaches no positive or negative intrinsic value to. — An example: â€Å"the FDA shouldn’t approve the ‘morning after’ pill, because it will only promote out-of-wedlock sex. † This argument assumes that out-of-wedlock sex is something that is per se bad, and that the risk of unwanted pregnancy and babies will deter at least some, perhaps many, from engaging in it, thereby reducing the total amount of it. The strict utilitarian rejects the idea that such sex is an intrinsic moral evil, holding instead that if such sex is bad, it is bad only insofar as it causes bad consequences like unwanted pregnancy and babies. — This argument for why the FDA shouldn’t approve the ‘morning after’ pill is better described as â€Å"consequentialist† rather than â€Å"utilitarian. † All strictly utilitarian arguments are consequentialist, but not all consequentialist arguments are strictly utilitarian. The important point is that one needn’t believe that utilitarianism is the correct moral theory in order to believe that consequentist arguments of either the strictly utilitarian kind or other kinds provide good reasons. We can admit that the increase in the happiness to others is a good reason to execute Joseph. But we can say that the fact that it would violate his right to life is an even better reason not to do it. Respect for rights â€Å"trumps† maximizing utility. Suppose that we want to build a highway that connects two cities. The shorter route would require destroying some scenic wilderness that is enjoyed by some nature lovers. The longer route avoids that but entails a longer driving time for people who commute between the two cities. Which route should the highway be built on? Here it’s plausible to think that we should make the decision on the basis of utilitarian considerations. We look at all the costs and benefits of both alternatives and pick the one with the most favorable benefit to cost ratio. The other three views—Kantian ethics, natural rights theories, and â€Å"religious ethics†Ã¢â‚¬â€all agree that there are many circumstances when maximizing utility would be wrong. Perhaps the strongest objection to AU comes from the natural rights theory: AU is false, because it tells us to violate people’s rights when that’s necessary to maximize utility. The example of Joseph illustrates it, but here’s another example. A surgeon has I healthy and 5 sick and dying patients. Each of the sick and dying patients needs a new organ— one a new kidney, another a new liver, the third a new heart, etc. —and would fully recover if he received it. It so happens that the 1 healthy patient would be a suitable organ donor for all of them. If the surgeon kills the 1 and redistributes his organs, he saves 5. If he does nothing, then 1 is alive and 5 are dead. On the assumption that all six are equally happy, loved by others, and productive of utility for others in society, then the way to maximize utility is to kill the 1. But if he won’t consent to being killed and having his organs transplanted (he doesn’t believe in utilitarianism), then killing him would violate his right to life. The objection is simply that it would be wrong to violate his right even if it’s the way to maximize utility. Kantian ethics is based on what Immanuel Kant claimed is the supreme principle of morality, the Categorical Imperative. Kant claimed that there were a few different but equivalent ways of stating the Categorical Imperative. The first, the Universal Law Formula, says that we should act only on principles that we can will to be a universal law that applies to everyone. The idea here seems to be that when people act immorally, they want everyone else to obey â€Å"the rules† but want to make an exception for themselves. Another way of stating the Categorical Imperative, the one we’ll focus on, is the Principle of Humanity. It says that whenever we act we must be sure always to treat all â€Å"persons† (both ourselves and others) as â€Å"ends† and never as â€Å"mere means. † â€Å"Persons† in Kantian ethics refers to any being with the capacity to make moral judgments and conform to them (where that often requires that one resist various urges, inclinations, and temptations to act against them). Persons have free will and reason. Babies are not yet persons, and cows and pigs never will be. Kant’s Principle of Humanity implies that it is only persons who possess â€Å"dignity† and must be treated as â€Å"ends. † Animals only have a â€Å"use value† and may be treated as mere means or resources. Animals may be used in experiments to test new drugs, but â€Å"persons† may be used in such experiments only with their â€Å"informed consent. † Kantians agree that killing the 1 healthy person in the above example is wrong, even if it maximizes utility for society as a whole. It is wrong because it treats him as a â€Å"mere means. † Kant held that if one commits suicide because one believes that the remainder of one’s life will be filled with more discomfort than pleasure, then one fails to treat oneself as an â€Å"end. † So long as one retains the capacities that make one a person, then one has dignity and one ought to respect this dignity. To think that life is worth living only if it is pleasant is to fail to respect this dignity. Another objection that Kantians have to AU, especially the hedonistic version, is that it is a degrading to humanity to think and act as though pleasure were the point of life. Kantians think that the point of life is the exercise of one’s personhood capacities in moral deliberation and choice. This does not mean that Kantians must oppose all suicide and euthanasia. They support it in cases where people have permanently lost the capacities for free will and reason (e. g. PVS patients like Terry Schiavo). Euthanasia in these cases provides a dignified death. Of course sometimes when people talk about â€Å"dying with dignity† they’re assuming that it’s the need to be cared for by others (e. g. to wear Depends diapers and have them changed by others) that’s â€Å"undignified. † A Kantian has to say that those people have mistaken views about the basis of human dignity. It’s personhood, not the ability to care for oneself without assistance from others, that gives human beings their dignity. Another implication of the Principle of Humanity is that lying is typically wrong. A woman who persuades me to sell her my new car at a low price by telling me a lie that I believe (â€Å"males who drive your model of car are 20 times more likely to develop testicular cancer than males who don’t†) treats me as a mere means. She manipulates me in a way that I would not consent to if I were aware of what her purposes are. What many people have criticized in Kant is not his claim that lies like this one are wrong, but his view that lying is always wrong. In the case where lying to evil people will help to thwart their evil aims (e. g. someone intent on committing murder asks me the whereabouts of his intended victim) Kant held that lying remains wrong. Instead of lying, I should simply not say anything. The main problem with the Principle of Humanity is that it’s not entirely clear what it means to treat another person as an â€Å"end. † It’s been claimed that it means you must treat others in ways that they would not object to if they were morally reasonable, thinking clearly, and well-informed about relevant factual matters. When society puts a thief in prison, it’s treating him as an end, because even though he might object to being incarcerated, he wouldn’t object if he were morally reasonable; he would admit that thieves deserve to go to jail. One problem with this interpretation of the Principle is that it assumes some other, independent standard of what’s â€Å"morally reasonable. † Wasn’t the Principle of Humanity itself supposed to provide that standard? Another problem is that it probably cannot support Kant’s judgment that lying is always wrong. After all, if the morally reasonable thief must admit that he deserves a loss of liberty as punishment for his crimes, shouldn’t a morally reasonable person agree that lying to him is okay as a means of preventing him from committing murder? The Principle of Humanity is sometimes interpreted as supporting the Principle of Autonomy. The Principle of Autonomy says that everyone has the right to live his/her life in accordance with his/her own views about religion, the meaning of life, the moral virtues, dignity and honor, etc., so long as one doesn’t infringe on the right of others to do the same. (Since this principle asserts the existence of a certain moral right, certain natural rights-based moral theories might also support it). You violate my autonomy if restrict my liberty for my own good on the basis of values that I reject. Consider two examples. First, you knock a cup of coffee out of my hands before I can drink from it. I object, but only because I assume, incorrectly, that there’s nothing wrong with the coffee; in fact, it contains poison. You have not violated my autonomy, because your interference can be justified by an appeal to my own values. Second, a competent, adult Jehovah’s Witness refuses to consent to a blood transfusion because it’s against his religion, but his friends force him to have one anyway, because they are convinced that he has misinterpreted the Biblical passage that forbids the â€Å"eating of blood. † In this case the Principle of Autonomy is violated. I think that the Jehovah’s Witness is better off having the life-saving transfusion. The Principle of Beneficence tells doctors to do what is in their patients’ best interests. Hence, this Principle supports ignoring the JW’s wishes and giving him the transfusion. This is a case in which the Principle of Autonomy conflicts with the Principle of Beneficence. I agree with the AMA that the doctor may not treat the JW without his â€Å"informed consent. † Hence, in this sort of case the value of respecting autonomy trumps the value of doing what’s best for the person. Are there any cases where the two principles conflict but beneficence overrides respect for autonomy? Our textbook correctly mentions libertarianism as one natural rights based moral theory. (Natural rights are supposed to be moral rights that exist whether or not the government recognizes and protects them. They are not to be confused with legal rights). Let me make a two points about libertarianism. It holds that our basic human rights include rights to life, liberty, and private property. The right to life is only a â€Å"negative† right (a right not to be killed by others), not a â€Å"positive† right (a right to be provided by one’s society the minimum nutrition and other goods that one needs to stay alive, if one cannot obtain them oneself). Other natural rights theorists disagree with the libertarian, holding that we have â€Å"positive† as well as â€Å"negative† natural rights. A right to decent, affordable health or to free health care if one is poor is an example of a â€Å"positive† right. Second, in saying that someone has a natural right to do x, we’re not necessarily saying that it’s morally permissible to do x. All we’re saying is that others do not have the right to interfere, to use coercion to prevent him from doing it. Consider a racist giving a public speech in which he advocates denying black people the right to vote. To say that he has a natural right to free speech only means that others (especially the government) are forbidden to step in and prevent him from speaking. It doesn’t mean that there’s nothing morally wrong with his speech. There obviously is—promoting racism is immoral. And in saying that we think his speech is immoral we don’t violate his free speech rights. We exercise our own. There are many different varieties of religious ethics, but we should focus on three religious ethics ideas often introduced into biomedical ethics controversies in this country. They are: i) The â€Å"sanctity of life† doctrine—it is absolutely forbidden either to perform or fail to perform some action with the aim of causing or facilitating the death of any innocent human being (oneself or another), whether or not the person to die consents to the act or omission, and whether or not he is better off with a quick and painless death. Hence, euthanasia (voluntary or not) is forbidden. The taking of innocent human life is God’s prerogative, not man’s. No human being has the right to â€Å"play God. † On the basis of the â€Å"sanctity of life† doctrine many religious people oppose the legalization of physician-assisted suicide and voluntary euthanasia. (They usually have other objections to legalization not based on this doctrine). ii) â€Å"Unnatural† acts are wrong. Though in-vetro fertilization and surrogate birthing are both wrong for this reason, the use of fertility drugs by a couple that has had difficulty in conceiving is not. iii) (Roman Catholicism only) The Doctrine of Double Effect– It is permissible to perform an act the evil consequences of which one foresees but does not intend (e. g. the death of an innocent human being), so long as the intended good consequences of the act outweigh or justify the unintended but foreseen bad consequences. It is permissible to perform an act with such consequences, even though it would be impermissible to perform it if the evil were intended as an end or as a means to bringing about some other end. — The â€Å"craniotomy† and â€Å"hysterectomy† examples and RC moral theology’s rejection of consequentialism. The craniotomy is supposed to be wrong, because the baby’s death is intended as a means to saving the mother. (It is supposed to be wrong, even though both mother and baby will die if the craniotomy is not performed). The hysterectomy is supposed to be permissible, because in that case the baby’s death is a foreseen but unintended side-effect of the hysterectomy. The claim that people who condemn homosexuality, masturbation, surrogate motherhood, reproductive cloning, etc. as wrong because â€Å"unnatural† are relying on religious ideas is controversial. Contemporary Roman Catholic philosophers who defend the natural law theory of morality (e. g. John Finnis) deny that their view presupposes a belief in God and God’s purposes (though it is certainly compatible with such a belief). They hold that we can know by means of unaided reason that these things are wrong. The natural law theory, they claim, is different from the â€Å"divine command theory of right and wrong. † According to the latter, what makes an act wrong is that it violates a divine command. So to know that homosexuality, for example, is wrong, we would have to know that the Bible, or Quran, or whatever, is the revealed word of God and read it to see if it includes a prohibition on homosexuality. Since the belief that the Bible or whatever is the revealed word of God rests on religious faith, it follows that a condemnation of homosexuality based on the divine command theory likewise depends on faith.