Methods of Data Collection Essay

Introduction: Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are qualitative methods for data collection. Bakhtadze (2012:82) ‘When you have decided on a topic, refined it and specified objectives, you start considering the ways of collecting the evidence you require. The initial question that guides you is: â€Å"What do I need to know to answer my research problem? Why do I need it?† After you have answered the question you start choosing the best ways of collecting information. Researchers next decide how they are going to collect their empirical research data. That is they decide what method of data collection (test, questionnaires, focus group, observation, interviews) they are going to use to physically obtain research data from their research participants.’ University of Wilconsin (2012)The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include: * Experiments/clinical trials.   * Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). * Obtaining relevant data from management information systems. * Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc). Wikipedia (2012) In statistics, survey methodology is the field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies. Other types of survey are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology. A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern. Survey methodology seeks to identify principles about the design, collection, processing, and analysis of surveys in connection to the cost and quality of survey estimates. It focuses on improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession. Part of the task of a survey methodologist is making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it. The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to: * Identify and select potential sample members. * Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or reluctant to respond). * Evaluate and test questions. * Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses. * Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved). * Check data files for accuracy and internal consistency. * Adjust survey estimates to correct for identified errors. Advantages * They are relatively easy to administer. * Can be developed in less time compared with other data-collection methods. * Can be cost-effective. * Few ‘experts’ are required to develop a survey, which may increase the reliability of the survey data. * If conducted remotely, can reduce or obviate geographical dependence. * Useful in describing the characteristics of a large population assuming the sampling is valid. * Can be administered remotely via the Web, mobile devices, mail, e-mail, telephone, etc. * Efficient at collecting information from a large number of respondents. * Statistical techniques can be applied to the survey data to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance even when analyzing multiple variables. * Many questions can be asked about a given topic giving considerable flexibility to the analysis. * Support both between and within-subjects study designs. * A wide range of information can be collected (e.g., attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviour). * Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors. Disadvantages The reliability of survey data may depend on the following: * Respondents’ motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond: * Respondents may not be motivated to give accurate answers. * Respondents may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. * Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given action. * Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables. * Self-selection bias: Although the individuals chosen to participate in surveys are often randomly sampled, errors due to non-response may exist ( Adà ©r et al. (2008:13) . That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates. For example, polls or surveys that are conducted by calling a random sample of publicly available telephone numbers will not include the responses of people with unlisted telephone numbers, mobile (cell) phone numbers, people who are unable to answer the phone (e.g., because they normally sleep during the time of day the survey is conducted, because they are at work, etc.), people who do not answer calls from unknown or unfamiliar telephone numbers. Likewise, such a survey will include a disproportionate number of respondents who have traditional, land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers, and people who stay home much of the day and are much more likely to be available to participate in the survey (e.g., people who are unemployed, disabled, elderly, etc.). * Question design. Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning â€Å"strength of choice†. For instance the choice â€Å"moderately agree† may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put â€Å"no† if the choice â€Å"only once† is not available. Questionnaires Wikipedia (2012)A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opini on polls. Basic rules for questionnaire item construction * Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. * Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. * Think of having an â€Å"open† answer category after a list of possible answers. * Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. * Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. * Do not make assumptions about the respondent. * Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels * Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. * Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?). Questionnaire administration modes Main modes of questionnaire administration are: * Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally. * Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper. * Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer. * Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the ‘testee’s ‘estimated ability or trait. -Wikipedia. Org Observational study In epidemiology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group before the start of the treatment. Wikipedia (2012)Although, observational studies cannot be used as reliable sources to make statements of fact about the â€Å"safety, efficacy, or effectiveness† of a practice, they can still be of use for some other things: â€Å"[T]hey can: 1) provide information on â€Å"real world† use and practice; 2) detect signals about the benefits and risks of†¦[the] use [of practices] in the general population; 3) help formulate hypotheses to be tested in subsequent experiments; 4) provide part of the community-level data needed to design more informative pragmatic clinical trials; and 5) inform clinical practice.†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Bakhtadze (107:2012) Observation is watching behavioral patterns of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. Quantitative Observation: Quantitative Observation involves the standardization of all observational procedures in order to obtain reliable research data. Qualitative Observation: Qualitative Observation involves observing all relevant phenomena and taking extensive field notes without specifying in advance exactly what is observed. Focus Groups Bakhtadze (106:2012) A focus group is a type of group interview in which a group moderator (working for the researcher) leads a discussion with a small group of individuals to examine how the group members think and feel about the topic. Purposes of Focus groups: 1. Obtaining general background information about a topic of interest; 2. Stimulating new ideas and creating concepts; 3. Generating impressions of products, programs, services, etc. 4. Learning how respondents talk about the phenomenon of interest; 5. Interpreting previously obtained qualitative results Summary A method of data collection is the procedure that a researcher uses to physically obtain research data from research participants. The method of data collection that is used in a research study is discussed in the method section of a research report. . Finally, the methods of data collection discussed in this paper work can be mixed by using the fundamental principle of mixed research to strengthen the evidence provided by a research study. References: Adà ¨r, H. J., Mellenbergh, G. J., & Hand, D. J. (2008). Advising on research methods: A consultant’s companion. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. Bakhtadze, I., 2012.Course note on Research Methodology, Department of Education, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi-Georgia. World Bank, n.d: Data Collection Methods, 2012 viewed 28th of December 2012 http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm University of Wilconsin, n.d., Data Collection Methods, viewed 28th of December 2012 http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/researchmethods/data%20collection%20methods/data%20collection%20methods.htm Wikipedia, 2012, Questionnaire, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire Wikipedia, 2012, Survey Methodology, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey Wikipedia, 2012, Observational Study, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_study

Developing and Maintaining Skills for Everyday Life

As a carer your role is not to do things â€Å"for† the individuals you care for but to do things â€Å"with† them. Your role is to work in partnership with the individual and support their decisions, regarding their care and support them to do as much as possible for themselves. If you provide too much care for an individual they can lose skills, not learn new skills and do not regain skills they have lost. By providing active support and encouraging the individual to participate in their daily living needs you are helping them to develop and maintain their skills for everyday life.Individuals may have an evaluation to assess their physical skills. This may be carried out by an occupational therapist who will assess how well an individual can function in daily life and participate in their environment. The OT will assess what equipment and adaptations are appropriate which might assist an individual to remain as independent as possible. Occupational therapy has been sh own to be successful for the elderly population with many medical conditions and surgical recoveries.Therapists work with individuals to improve their strength and regain or maintain necessary life skills. Occupational therapists working with the geriatric community counsel families, groups in the community and local governments, to make sure that each sector is doing its part to help the elderly to maintain their independence. Occupational therapy also helps geriatric clients and patients with other activities to assist in diminishing the possibility of social isolation and its unpleasant side effects.They do this by helping elderly clients and patients continue social activities they know and encouraging them to get involved in new ones as well as showing these folks ways to continue to learn in spite their limitations. Occupational therapy also promotes mind stimulating activities. These mental gymnastics give the seniors feelings of self-worth and may help them avoid getting dem entia. Encouraging individuals to join local clubs and activities can also help them to maintain and develop their skills. Developing and Maintaining Skills for Everyday Life As a carer your role is not to do things â€Å"for† the individuals you care for but to do things â€Å"with† them. Your role is to work in partnership with the individual and support their decisions, regarding their care and support them to do as much as possible for themselves. If you provide too much care for an individual they can lose skills, not learn new skills and do not regain skills they have lost. By providing active support and encouraging the individual to participate in their daily living needs you are helping them to develop and maintain their skills for everyday life.Individuals may have an evaluation to assess their physical skills. This may be carried out by an occupational therapist who will assess how well an individual can function in daily life and participate in their environment. The OT will assess what equipment and adaptations are appropriate which might assist an individual to remain as independent as possible. Occupational therapy has been sh own to be successful for the elderly population with many medical conditions and surgical recoveries.Therapists work with individuals to improve their strength and regain or maintain necessary life skills. Occupational therapists working with the geriatric community counsel families, groups in the community and local governments, to make sure that each sector is doing its part to help the elderly to maintain their independence. Occupational therapy also helps geriatric clients and patients with other activities to assist in diminishing the possibility of social isolation and its unpleasant side effects.They do this by helping elderly clients and patients continue social activities they know and encouraging them to get involved in new ones as well as showing these folks ways to continue to learn in spite their limitations. Occupational therapy also promotes mind stimulating activities. These mental gymnastics give the seniors feelings of self-worth and may help them avoid getting dem entia. Encouraging individuals to join local clubs and activities can also help them to maintain and develop their skills.

Cognitive Development Theory Essay

As a prospective educator, it is important for me to understand the cognitive development theory and how it applies to individuals. Cognitive development is basically how the thought process begins. It is the way that people learn and how mental processes become elaborate and develop. These processes include remembering things, making decisions, and also solving problems. In order for a teacher to be effective, one must understand how children develop mentally so that each student can be accommodated in the classroom. There are many theories regarding cognitive development, and there are several factors that remain constant throughout all of them. These factors form some of the basic premises on cognitive development, which include the ideas that all people go through specific steps or stages of learning or understanding, and that certain qualifications must be met before learning can occur. It is the actual specifics of these basic premises that cognitive theorists have differing opinions about. (Slavin, 2009) Two theorists that display the basic premises of cognitive development are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Both theorists have similarities and differences when it comes to their views on cognitive development. We will first begin with the views of the two on the nature or development of intelligence. Piaget believed that children are naturally born with the ability to both interact with and make sense of their environment. Children as well as adults use patterns of thinking called schemes to deal with different things in the world. The process of assimilation and accommodation is used to maintain balance in our daily lives. Piaget believed that â€Å"learning depends on the process of equilibration. When equilibrium is upset, children have the opportunity to grow and develop. † (Slavin, 2009, pg. 32) Different experiences that we face and factors in our environment contribute to developmental change in us. Vygotsky shared some similar ides with Piaget including the belief that the environment plays a huge role in the development of intelligence. He also believed that â€Å"development depended on a sign system, the culture’s language or writing system, that children grew up with. â€Å"(Slavin, 2009, pg. 2) Both also believed that there is an invariant sequence of steps that is the same for everyone, and that development is influenced by cognitive conflict. While the two share a few similarities on the development of intelligence, there are also differences as well. Piaget feels that development precedes learning. This simply means that something must take pace before learning can begin. Vygotsky, on the other hand, feels that learning comes before development which is the exact opposite of Piaget. It simply means that you must learn something before development can occur. Piaget and Vygotsky also had both similarities and differences on the stages of development. We will first start with the differences beginning with Piaget who believed that there are four stages to cognitive development. They are the sensorimotor, perioperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. He felt that all children passed through these stages and that you could move faster than others, but not skip a stage. (Slavin, 2009, pg. 33) The sensorimotor stage occurs at birth through two years of age. It is the stage where infants explore their environment using the five senses and motor skills. This includes sucking, grasping, and touching. The perioperational stage is from two to seven years old. Language develops at a fast pace in this stage. At this time the child’s thinking is also very self centered, and they lack the understanding of conservation. The concrete operational stage is from ages seven to eleven. At this time, thinking tends to shift from being self-centered to more logical. Problem solving is no longer restricted and the idea of reversibility also occurs. The last and final stage is the formal operational stage. This happens beginning with the age of eleven moving on into adulthood. Systematic experimentation is used to solve problems both symbolic and abstract thinking are now possible in this stage. Vygotsky felt that there was not stages, but different elements to cognitive development. The first element is private speech. â€Å"Private speech is a child’s self talk, which guides their thinking and actions, eventually internalized as silent inner speech† (Slavin, 2009, pg. 43) When children are struggling with a difficult situation you often see children talking to themselves to help cope with the situation. When we become adults we still talk to ourselves, but it is usually silent. The next element of cognitive development is the zone of proximal development or ZPD. â€Å"This is the level of development immediately above the person’s present level. † (Slavin, 2009, pg. 43) To better understand, this can be described as something that the child may not have learned yet, but are capable of being taught with the assistance of an adult. Educators often refer to this as a â€Å"teachable moment†. (Slavin, 2009, pg. 43) Now that we can see the differences between the two theorists, we can now explore the similarities between the two. Both heorists understand the importance of a child learning a culture’s sign system. They both feel that this has a significant impact on development. The two also agree that environmental factors such as sounds, signs, and objects are equally important. Lastly, the two theorists believe that there are some tasks that a child may not understand depending on age, but Vygotsky feels that if it is in the zone of proximal development then the child can be assisted with the help of an adult. Educators have been using both Piaget’s as well as Vygotsky’s theories in the classroom for years. An example of an activity that can be used in the classroom using Piaget’s theory of learning takes place in a kindergarten class. The teacher would ask the students to share what they do when it is raining outside. At this age we are in the perioperational stage where children tend to be egocentric. Some say that they go outside and jump in mud puddles while others may say that they stay inside and play with their toys. The children would share their experiences and they would all be correct because not everyone does the same thing. You can use Vygotsky’s theory of learning in at work in the classroom where third grade students are learning how to classify different types of dirt. You can place the students in groups where they can discuss how you properly classify the dirt. This will allow the students to hear other students thoughts, and see what methods they use to classify. Using this type of cooperative learning allows the students to learn from each other. When comparing both classroom applications we see that both classrooms are working as groups learning from each other. Piaget theory is seen in both classrooms. In the kindergarten classroom, the classroom is seeing that there are different ways to deal with the rain. The students are sharing their personal experiences and showing that there is no wrong answer. There are many ways of doing things . In the third grade classroom, the students are able to classify the dirt using touch and sight to see and feel the differences in each type. Both classrooms are interacting with the environment and learning from it. Vygotsky’s cooperative learning is also being played out in both classrooms. In the kindergarten classroom, the students are learning that there are different activities that can be done outside in the rain. Similarly, in the third grade class the students are using cooperative learning to find different ways of classifying dirt. In both classrooms the students are using the think out loud process. The differences in the two classrooms also stand out. When applying Piaget’s theory in the kindergarten classroom, you see that the students are in the perioperational stage. The students are egocentric and feel that what they say is the only right answer to the question. In the third grade class, the students are in the concrete operational stage. They are able to easily look at and see the differences in the types of dirt that they are working with. When it comes to Vygotsky’s theory in the kindergarten classroom, the students are working within their zone of proximal development. The students may not understand that they can do more than one thing in the rain because they have done the same thing every time. The teacher is using this as a teachable moment to allow the students to teach each other the different things that can be done. In the third grade class, on the other hand, private speech is being used. The students are saying their thoughts out loud to classify the dirt. When the students are using cooperative learning they are learning the different ways in which the other students use to classify the dirt. In conclusion, we can see how and why it is important to understand and know how to apply cognitive development theories in the classroom. Both Piaget and Vygotsky played major roles in how we teach our children in today’s world. We can use information and skills from both theorists to shape our students into great learners.

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Research Paper Example Statesmen and stateswomen must not fear economic damage and use scientific data in debating on solutions, like to compel states in being bound by agreements on climate change. Important to effective talks on the plans is a deeper understanding of the issue. Dowdeswell is correct that world leaders could not craft anti-climate change measures because they guard national interests and they recognize the value of the fossil fuel industry to the economies of their countries. The author tells that leaders protecting country interests resist actions to climate change if these would badly affect their economies (par. 4), and I think this is true in countries with resources that are important globally, such as the Middle East which is a world oil source. I also see that it is natural for leaders to allow the fossil fuel industry to pollute their countries and worsen climate change because their economies thrive and thus benefit from them. After all, the science of climate change is ignored a nd â€Å"attacked by fossil fuel industries† (par.

Ethics of a management accountant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethics of a management accountant - Essay Example This paper will discuss the ethics of management accountants and explain why there is a need for standardized code of conduct for the financial management practitioners and management accounting. Ethics refers to the fundamental principles or the moral values and rules that guide human behaviors on whether they are right or wrong on a specified line of profession. Ethics of a managerial accountant are meant to ensure that a certain level of trust is attained within the institutions and beyond. Ethical values in financial management are paramount for maintaining accuracy and proper interpretation and analysis of financial data. These ethical values are meant to eliminate any form of financial discrepancies introduced in books of accounts either intentionally or accidentally. In addition, financial variations have a negative effect on all the stakeholders and the information provided by the accountants is crucial for budgeting purposes by the organization’s top management (Duska, Duska & Ragatz, 2011). Moreover, financial and accounting ethics are very critical in any form of business or organization since it deals with actual facts and figures for institutions forecasting. The business management makes full use of the information provided by the accounting department when reviewing the business objectives and targets and also in the vital decision making situations. In addition, accounting practitioners have full access to sensitive business information and should be handled with great care to maintain organizations trust and confidentiality (Duska, Duska & Ragatz, 2011). Therefore, it is unethical to use this information for personal gain since it would lead to detrimental legal implications. For the above mentioned reasons, financial accounting ethics ascertain that managerial accountants can be trusted with sensitive business information if the enterprise is to realize

Why are big projects often complete late and out of budget Essay

Why are big projects often complete late and out of budget - Essay Example uth Wales Labor Government ran an international competition for a design for a complex including 2 main halls, a restaurant and meeting rooms with 234 architects from 9 countries submitting designs. An extraordinarily ambitious design by Jorn Utzon was initially rejected by an assessment committee, however, respected Finnish architect Eero Saarinon convinced them to change their minds and Utzon was awarded the prize. Before The Opera House, Utzon had won 7 of eight competitions he had entered but not one of his designs was ever built. It was estimated that construction would take 5 years and would cost A$7 million. The â€Å"Opera House Lottery† was born in 1958 as an extra source of funding before construction had begun. The original completion date was set down for 26th January, 1963 (Australia Day) and it didnt reach completion until 1973, 10 years late and the costs had blown out to A$103 million, 14 times over budget. Because of the complexities of his design, Utzon, was aware that technical problems would arise and as advanced technology that was not yet available would be needed to address these problems. He pleaded that he had not yet fully completed the design for the structure and asked for more time to tackle these problems, however his request was denied with the government fearing that funding and public opinion would turn against them and construction began in 1959, two years ahead of Utzons schedule. The lack of preparation had immediate consequences and many structural issues remained unsolved. With unexpected difficulties such as bad weather and the inability to have a suitable avenue for rain water to be diverted along with the fact that appropriate construction drawings had not been drafted, work was already running 47 weeks behind schedule. The roof of the Opera House was to be formed with a series of precast concrete shells and covered with Swedish made white glazed tiles. It was discovered, after the monumental Grand Podium, with its

Reading and writing assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading and writing assignments - Essay Example Burke’s definition of beauty isonly limited to a personal level. These terms that he uses are more inclined towards effeminacy as they suggest passiveness and submission. This implies that his definition excludes males. A subjective definition of beauty looks at the impression created on the beholder and hence is said to be in the eyes of the beholder. The same is also echoed by St. Thomas Aquinasin the Summa Theologica in his development of the concept of beauty. Beauty should not only be looked at interms of the cognitive or emotive aspects. It, therefore, should not be stated as only lying in the eyes of the beholder. This is also because beauty can be defined interms of the goodness of a person and their personality which gives a perception of beauty to the general public. A person with adorable morals and enviable personality creates a feeling of passion from the public and so is stated to be beautiful. Thus, beauty is an appealpresented to the public but does not necessarily lie in one’s cognitive and emotive

Reading report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Reading report - Essay Example It is important to understand that human beings are responsible for building and assembling of computers. For this reason, it is important to distinguish between a strong artificial intelligence and a weak intelligence. One of such critics is John Searle who describes strong artificial intelligence with regard to the computer is that it is able to formulate and test hypothesis in a more rigorous and precise fashion with very minimal errors. However, Searle points out that the basis of the strength and precision of computer is not the brain but the programs, which have been installed in the computer. This means that computers have cognitive states, which are much stronger and accurate compared to that of a human being. A Turing test is the ability of the computer or a machine to give and express intelligent behavior, which is almost equivalent and is indistinguishable from human beings. Allan Turing who aimed at determining if computers can think developed this concept in 1950 (John R . Searle 54). In his test, he was not refereeing to the ability of the machines offering the right answers to the question but how the answers are closely linked to human response. The test therefore did not consider audio receptions but relied on text only channels. The test relies on artificial intelligence since it involves machines in testing if the computer is able to give accurate and precise answers. As expected Allan Turing test did not go without criticism. From a philosophical point of view Descartes agrees with the Turing test on the basis of automation but he was quick to denounce the test on the basis that it human beings can think and give answers and that machines can give the right answers and cannot think. It therefore means that even though machines can interpret information and give the right answers that do not qualify them to be superior to human on the basis of thinking. In addition to this, Searle disagrees with the Turing test on the subject that even though computers can respond to different languages and give the correct answers, they only provided the right answers but without understanding and this is what distinguishes artificial intelligence with human intelligence. A human being can only respond to a language if he/she has an understanding of the language. However, machines can do this better with the help of coded programs does not mean that the computer understands the language. To support his concept, Searle performed a Chinese room test where an English native speaker man is placed in room and shown Chinese symbols. The man fails to understand the Chinese symbol and language through writings since he is not a Chinese speaker. In the second test, the same man is given the same symbols but this time with interpreted English codes, which gives the meaning of the words and the man, begins to relate the English words with the Chinese symbols. Searle calls this the question and answer technique. If a Chinese native speaker is taken through the same test, similar results will be produced and it will be difficult to distinguish between answers from the English and Chinese speakers. We therefore conclude that the English native speaker has been able to answer Chinese questions even though he does not understand them. This does not make the human being intelligent since he has been able to answer questions that he does not understand. It is the coding of the English and C

Cultural Critique Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cultural Critique - Research Paper Example Given that women make up over a half of the human population and give their huge and increasing contributions to every sector of the development the trampling on their rights is not only a great shame, but an unfortunate indictment of the civilized society throughout the world. The subjugation of women’s rights begins right at home. Women are expected to take the lead in taking care of children at home. They are the ones who have to give up their career for at least a significant amount of time in order to ensure the well-being of their new-born babies. Women bear the brunt of child-bearing, an experience still fraught with significant health dangers, especially in the under-developed a countries where a large number of women lose their lives during the birth process. In the family upbringing is meant to be a shared duty for both parents, a lot of the times the woman is still expected to be the one to give up her time and career prospects in order to raise the children. In mar riages, women also bear the brunt of domestic violence; in over 90% of cases reported the women are the victims. In the UK, for instance, one in 4 women aged 16-59 have experienced domestic abuse and 50% of these have also been raped (Women's Health& Equality Consortium 3). In cases of single mothers, women end up playing the role of both mother and father despite the fact that the conception of the child is a shared process. In education too women are at a disadvantage, especially in the developing and underdeveloped world where cultural attitudes and poverty dictate that the education of the girl-child is given less of a priority than that of the boy child. The common perception is that educating the girl only ends up benefitting the family where she will end up getting married into.This means that when a family has to prioritize who gets a chance for education, the girl child is always disadvantaged. In the lower basic education levels, thus, even though the developed countries h ave managed to more or less equalize the schooling of girls and boys, this is not the case in the majority of the rest of the world. A large proportion of women in Africa, Asia, and even the Eastern European states are still greatly disadvantaged when it comes to educational opportunities. When the girls find their way to school, they are still discriminated against when it comes to certain courses of studies. In many countries there are still beliefs that women are somehow not as proficient as men in such fields as sciences, architecture, medicine, engineering, math, and other â€Å"brain taxing† studies which leads to stereotyping of the kinds of courses that women end up taking at school. At the high end of the education ladder too, women still find a glass ceiling when it comes to postgraduate and doctoral studies. In American Universities, for example, despite the fact that 53% of the students are women, 72% of the faculty are men, many of them in tenured positions while the women mostly have untenured or part time positions (Penn State University). The workplace is the one place where women are still very disadvantaged in both the developed and the underdeveloped world. Women face disadvantages and discrimination in getting senior and management jobs, they never get equal pay for equal work with

Initial Public Offering Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Initial Public Offering Paper - Essay Example In this case, even after the IPO, Del-Ta Engineering is still the controlling shareholder by virtue of its shareholders agreement with David Rivel (Initial Public Offerings (IPO): RRSAT Global Communications Network Ltd. n.d.). IPOs have positive initial returns on average. This is the phenomenon of underpricing (Ross, Westerfield, and Jaffee, 1996). For example, at start of the first day after the RRSat Global Communications Network Ltd., the shares were 12.16% [($14.02 - $ 12.50)/$12.50] above their initial offering price. At the end of the first day, the shares were 20.24% [($15.03 - $ 12.50)/$12.50] above their initial offering price (RRSat Global Communications Network Ltd. n.d.). The present value of the first three payments comprises a significant portion (20.73%) of the price of stock. This can be explained by the time value of money. A dollar now is worth more than a dollar in the future. a. High-risk companies. High-risk companies are expected to distribute a relatively low proportion of current earnings and have a relatively low PE ratio. A high-risk company is likely to retain more of its earnings as the probability of bankruptcy is higher.

London Stock Market and Capital Budgeting Essay

London Stock Market and Capital Budgeting - Essay Example Winning in business is characterised by net profits. There are two ways of generating funds. They are borrowing and investing. The best place to invest funds is visiting the London Stock Exchange. The following paragraphs explains clearly why investing in capital assets is a risk that can be tailored to generate profits and not left to chance (Datta, and Jones 1999, 21). The above computation shows that sales for the first year is 7,000,000. The direct materials and variable operating expenses amount is 2,500,000. The direct labor amount is 2,000,000. The factory overhead is arrived at by multiplying the direct labor amount by fifty percent. The amount arrived at is 1,000,000. The annual depreciation of 675,000 is arrived at by dividing the investment cost of the equipment amount of 3,375,000 by five years. The net profit result is 825,000.The cash inflow is arrived at by adding back the annual depreciation expense to the net income because there is no actual cash outflow generated by the depreciation expense. The net cash inflow computed for the first year is 1,500,000. This generates a first year present value using the net present value discount table for varying annual cash inflows is 1,485,000(Dayananda et al. 2002, 5). The above computation shows that sales for the second year is 7,700,000. ... The net profit result is 975,000.The cash inflow is arrived at by adding back the annual depreciation expense to the net income because there is no actual cash outflow generated by the depreciation expense. The net cash inflow computed for the second year is 1,650,000. This generates a first year present value using the net present value discount table for varying annual cash inflows is 1,617,000. The above computation shows that sales for the third year is 8,400,000. The direct materials and variable operating expenses amount is 3,000,000. The direct labor amount is 2,400,000. The factory overhead is arrived at by multiplying the direct labor amount by fifty percent. The amount arrived at is 1,200,000. The annual depreciation of 675,000 is arrived at by dividing the investment cost of the equipment amount of 3,375,000 by five years. The net profit result is 1,125,000.The cash inflow is arrived at by adding back the annual depreciation expense to the net income because there is no actual cash outflow generated by the depreciation expense. The net cash inflow computed for the second year is 1,800,000. This generates a first year present value using the net present value discount table for varying annual cash inflows is 1,747,000. The above computation shows that sales for the fourth year is 6,300,000. The direct materials and variable operating expenses amount is 2,250,000. The direct labor amount is 1,800,000. The factory overhead is arrived at by multiplying the direct labor amount by fifty percent. The amount arrived at is 900,000. The annual depreciation of 675,000 is arrived at by dividing the investment cost

Districts of Dickens London Essay Example for Free

Districts of Dickens London Essay Charles Dickens was born on Friday 7th February 1812 at Portsmouth. His father John Dickens continually living beyond his means and then was finally imprisoned in 1824. 12 year old Charles was removed from school and sent to work in a factory the most terrible period of his life, this child hood poverty and adversity influenced dickens later views on social reform in a country in the throes of the industrial revolution. In the Victorian age queen Victoria was on the throne and reigned over an empire, we were seen as very strong and powerful. All the British people became very arrogant and we thought we were more superior to the rest of the world. In the workhouse north of London a young woman who has arrived in an exhausted conditions gives birth to a boy, and dies. Looked after over by the ill-natured Mrs Corney. Mr bumble, transfers him aged nine to the workhouse itself and he is set to work picking oakum. When Oliver causes some trouble by asking for some more food the authorities decide to put Oliver into the trade. He becomes apprenticed to Sowerberry, an undertaker. Another apprentice Noah Claypole insults Olivers dead mother, Oliver attacks him and is cruelly punished by the Sowerberrys. He runs away to London, and in Barnet he meets with a boy thief, Jack Dawkins, The Artful Dodger, a member of a pickpocket gang run by Fagin, a Jew. Oliver is horrified to see them pick pocket of an old gentleman, Mr Brownlow, at a book stall, runs away, and is captured and taken before a magistrates but the bookstall keeper has seen the true robbers. Oliver is taken to MR Brownlows house in Pentonville, where the housekeeper, Mrs Bedwin, nurses him through an illness. He is treated with kindness and affection for the first time in his life and is delighted. But Fagin plots to recapture him. He engages Bill Sikes, a brutal robber, and Nancy, his mistress, also a member of the gang, to bring Oliver back. Sikes takes Oliver by night to Chertsey to carry out a robbery on the house of a Mrs Maylie. When the alarm is given Sikes takes fright and escapes, and Oliver is shot and wounded. Mrs Maylie and her adopted niece, Rose, takes him in, and he settles with them, becoming a house hold favourite. Rose gets a serious illness. Mrs Maylies son, Harry arrives on her recovery and begs her to marry him. She refuses. During his good life with the maylies, Oliver catches glimpses of MONKS a sinister man who works with Fagin to try and recapture him. Nancy tells rose about Fagins and Monks conspiracy. Sikes, maddened by Nancys supposed treachery, rushes back to his own room, awakens her from sleep and clubs her to death. A police raid in which Fagin was arrested. Sikes attempts to escape across the roofs but falls and dies. Oliver returns to Mr Brownlow. Monks, otherwise Edward Leeford, is Olivers half brother. The provisions of fathers will leave money to Oliver on conditions that he maintains a spotless reputations, and for this reasons Monks has tried to keep the boy in Fagins gang in order to discredit him. Mr Brownlow then adopts Oliver. The structure of Oliver Twist is full of highs and lows because of the sequence of cliffhangers. The structure of the novel makes it more intriguing when Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist They were published in instalments, the effect of this made the novel more compelling and made the reader crave for more. The instalments lead to recaps to tie in the events, and the chapter titles worked as a summary of what was going to materialize in each chapter. Dickens narrative technique is known as the third person. The third person uses a narrator who watches over events, this helps Dickens to deepen the emotions for Oliver because he can describe everything that happens to him. London was seen as the place for work, money and dreams. But there was also a considerable high amount of poverty and hardship, Olivers grievance began in the workhouse and later having to thieve for Fagin in return for shelter and food. Crime doesnt pay, but crime was quite common because of the amount of adversity. Good triumphs over evil, Fagin, Bill Sikes and Monks are immoral and corrupt. Mr Brownlow Rose Maylie and Nancy were the trustworthy honest citizens. The moral of the the novel shows Fagin being tried and executed for his crimes, Bill Sikes was hunted down and he hung him self trying to escape from the law. Monks confessed to trying to discredit Oliver and has to sign over Olivers inheritance. This proves that crime doesnt pay! The London setting in Oliver Twist has distinct wealthy and deprived areas. Kennels over flowing, the noise of traffic increasing as you get nearer to the heart and the roads nearly ankle deep with filth and mire, are just some of the problems facing the poorer, slum districts of Dickens London. London is very important in the novel because Dickens uses the every day reality he witnessed to make a social comment about the rich and the poor areas. London is also viewed as a big adventure to the young Oliver and yet in Londons criminal world, dirty deeds take place in the dark, gloomy, dismal surroundings that Dickens describes and it is here in this place of dirty squalor that where all the bad behaviour fits. London is the key, which changes Oliver. His dark and bleak emotions match the locations and this is because of the grim surroundings. The cold, wet shelter less midnight streets of London is meant to make the reader feel depressed and sorry for Oliver and show you the reality of London. As Dickens saw it. The historical and cultural text of the novel tells the reader about the miserable reality. Dickens knew that many of his readers had a lack of sense of humour you can tell this by the way Dickens wrote because he included scenes of reality rather than humorous clips. Original readers would of reacted strongly to the setting and some found the descriptions unpleasant and too detailed. The links between crime and poverty are that in many cases people have to steel to live. Dickens showed the injustice between the wealthy and the poor, and how the poor were badly treated and living in slum housing Dickens also responded to this by saying that crime really does exists such as Jack Dawkins, Fagin, and Bill Sikes should be painted in all their wretchedness, in all their deformity and in all their squalid misery of their lives, to show them as they really are, for ever skulking uneasily through the dirtiest paths of life. When Oliver was young he lived in a workhouse, it was an extremely appalling and uncompromising place. The staff that ran the institute were ruthless, threatening and harsh. They treated the inmates badly and inadequately. They worked long hours, with little poor quality food. The staffs were more often than not corrupt eating and drinking luxuriously whilst the inmates starve.

Non-communicable diseases Diseases of Excess

Non-communicable diseases Diseases of Excess Non-Communicable diseases often referred to as Diseases of Excess or Diseases of Affluence are increasing in both rich and poor countries. What factors are contributing to this trend? What are the implications for public health policy? Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1948) where as Disease is a condition where any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function of any body part, organ, or system that is manifested by a characteristic set of symptoms and signs and whose etiology, pathology, and prognosis may be known or unknown (Dorlands Medical Dictionary, 2007). Disease can be divided broadly into two categories as Communicable and Non Communicable Diseases (on the basis of its spread). Communicable disease is a disease which can spread from one individual to other through any carrier/organism (Malaria, HIV/AIDS, etc). It is also known as Infectious or Contagious disease. There are many factors responsible for the cause of communicable diseases like social, environmental, sanitation and education. Non Communicable disease is a disease which is not communicated from one individual from another (Hypertens ion, Cancer, etc). It is also known as Chronic diseases because these diseases takes lot of time to show the sign and symptoms within an individual. The major causes for NCDs are lifestyle, habits like smoking and alcohol, inadequate diet and physical inactivity. Communicable diseases was reported to be the major cause of death in earlier time where as Non Communicable diseases(NCDs) are of major threat in current era except in some countries like Africa where still people die out of infections. In some countries like USA, the leading cause of death in 1900s was tuberculosis and pneumonia where as these diseases are secondary nowadays and their places are acquired by the cardiovascular diseases on the top and cancer being the second. The main reason for the reduction in communicable diseases are the improvement in diagnosis, treatment, sanitation, nutrition, housing, working conditions, preventive measures such as immunization, evolution of life saving drugs like antibiotics and sulpha drugs. Non-Communicable diseases or Non-Infectious diseases are caused by factors mainly behavioural, lifestyle and heredity and which cannot be transmitted to other individual. It is also caused as the Disease of Affluence or the Disease of Excess as it is caused due to negligence or disturbance caused in the normal routine lifestyle which is mainly found in the upper class of the society where there is more chances of misbalance between diet and work can be seen. Few of the examples which come under non communicable diseases are Heart diseases, Stroke, Obesity, Diabetes, Cancer, etc. Acc. to WHOs statistics in 2008, Heart Stroke has become the leading cause of death globally leaving behind the infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS, TB, Malaria, etc. In 2003, there was an estimated 56 million death globally, out of which 60% death was supposed to be due to non-communicable diseases (WHO, 2003). Among NCDs, 16 million deaths resulted from cardiovascular disease (CVD), especially Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) and Stroke; 7 million from Cancer; 3 ·5 million from Chronic Respiratory Disease; and almost 1 million from Diabetes (Ibid). Apart from these, mental health problems are also the leading contributors to the burden of disease in many countries nowadays and play a major role in contributing to the severity and incidence of other NCDs. NCDs are now considered to be the major threat contributing 59% of death in 2000 and predicted to account for 73% by 2020 (WHO, 2002). NCDs are also termed as a Disease of Affluence due to incidence and prevalence mainly in the developed countries (Anand K et al, 2007). But according to them, this seems to be a misleading term as the NCD trend is increasing at a higher pace in middle and low income countries leaving them in a double burden of Communicable diseases as well as NCDs. It can more appropriately be labelled as Disease of Urbanisation (Ibid). Several studies done by them have proved that the NCDs and its risk factors are found in higher proportion among urban population than rural population. Their study shows that urban population has increased during past decade due to migration where as urban growth is stabilized at 3%. Contrary to it, the urban slum growth rate has doubled which has made the situation worse as these migrated poor people living in urban areas will adopt the NCD lifestyle but will not be in a condition to access the healthcare due to their poor purchasing ability. Study shows a high prevalence of NCDs risk factor in the urban slums of Haryana, India. The population residing in the slums is at high risk than the urban population due to poor access as well as no social and health support system for them. This requires an urgent intervention which can work at national, community as well as local level. A framework of the policy is required at national level which has tobacco and alcohol control measures, promotion of good diet and involvement of proper exercise. Simultaneously, reorientation and strengthening of the governments health system is needed to face the challenge of NCDs community level efforts to create an environment which promotes adoption of healthy behaviors. To overcome this situation, government has started the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) which provides a rational basis for decision making and impl ementing public health interventions and also ensures involving the slums as well (Ibid). A survey was being conducted by Anand et al in urban areas slums of Faridabad District, Haryana, India, in February 2003 to June 2004 for checking out the prevalence of NCDs in urban poor people. Their study followed the STEPS approach of WHO where questions related to tobacco use, alcohol intake, diet, physical activity were included and history of treatment for hypertension, diabetes, physical values like height, weight, waist circumference and blood pressure were also measured. They surveyed 1260 men and 1304 women of age 15-64. The result came out of this survey was very alarming. The rate of smoking and alcohol drinkers were high among urban slums male population. Almost one third of the population had at least one risk factor. Alcohol consumption among younger population indicates gradually falling economy of the country in the coming future. The table 1 (Appendix) shows that NCDs are the leading cause for the death in both developed and developing countries except some countries like Africa where still today, there is more number of death due to communicable diseases than NCDs. In 2003, 2 ·8 million CVD deaths occur in China and 2 ·6 million in India. NCDs contributed substantially to adult mortality with central and eastern Europe having the highest rates (WHO, 2003). The Table 2 (Appendix) shows that the developed countries have seven NCDs out of ten leading risk factors which are contributing to the global burden of disease, where as six and three out of ten with low and high rates of mortality respectively, in the developing countries. These NCD risk factors are increasing at a higher rate in the developing countries and assumed to continue in the same manner for the next two decades. Chronic diseases attribute to the 46% of the global burden of the disease, Cardio Vascular Diseases (CVDs), in particular. Although some of the communicable diseases are still prominent in the some parts of the Africa, Asia and Latin America, deaths mainly due to chronic diseases were reported in five out of the six WHO regions (Africa, America, South east Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, Western Pacific and Europe). In developing countries also, 79% of the deaths are reported due to the chronic diseases. Incidence and prevalence of obesity, diabetes, cancers, respiratory diseases and other NCDs are increasing all over the world (Murray and Lopaz, 1996). Developing country like China has experienced an epidemiological transition shifting from the infectious to the chronic diseases in much shorter time than many other countries. The pace and spread of behavioral changes, including changing diets, decreased physical activity, high rates of male smoking, and other high risk behaviors, has accelerated to an unprecedented degree. As a result, the burden of chronic diseases, preventable morbidity and mortality, and associated health-care costs could now increase substantially. China already has 177 million adults with hypertension; furthermore, 303 million adults smoke, which is a third of the worlds total number of smokers, and 530 million people in China are passively exposed to second-hand smoke. The prevalence of overweight people and obesity is increasing in Chinese adults and children, because of dietary changes and reduced physical activity. Emergence of chronic diseases presents special challenges for Chinas ongoing reform of heal th care, given the large numbers who require curative treatment and the narrow window of opportunity for timely prevention of disease (Gonghuan Y et al, 2008). Common Non-Communicable Diseases Cardiovascular diseases include all the heart diseases like hypertension, stroke, atherosclerosis, etc. Annually, 17 million deaths are reported mainly due to the CVDs globally out of which 80% are reported in low and middle income countries with a continuous increasing trend (Reddy and Yusuf, 1998). Acc. to Lenfant, CVD will be the leading cause of the death by 2010 in the developing countries due to changes brought about by urbanization and industrialization. Due to costly and prolonged treatment cost of CVDs, developing countries are at greater prevalence for the risk factors, higher incidence of disease and higher mortality (Reddy, 2002). Diabetes is increase in blood sugar level in a person. International Diabetes Federation has released the statistics in 2003, according to which diabetes patients will going to increase from 194 million in 2003 to 330 million in 2030 and at that time every 3 out of 4 living person will be diabetic. The age of diabetic patients in developing countries is comparatively more than developed countries. The cases found in developing countries are above the age of retirement which may lead to conditions like blindness, amputations, kidney failure and heart diseases (Boutayeb and Twizell, 2004). Cancer and its type are increasing at an alarming rate worldwide. It is known to be the major cause for the mortality and morbidity. More than 10 million new cases and over 7 million deaths from cancer occurred in 2000 (Shibuya et al., 2002). Developing countries contributed by 53% in incidence and 56% in deaths. By 2020, there will be an increase of around 29% cases in developed countries and 73% in developing countries (Mathers et al., 1999). Lung, breast, stomach, colorectal and liver cancer are the most frequent in developing countries. Cancer and its related types can be treated on a preventative basis. Early detection and control of risk factors like tobacco and alcohol can be said to be the cornerstones in this process because it is estimated that over one third of the cancer types are preventable and around one third are potentially curable if they are detected early (Alwan, 1997). Other NCDs includes chronic respiratory diseases like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, mental and depressive disorders, osteoarthritis, hearing loss and disorder of vision (WHO, 2003). They all contribute mainly to the burden of disease in developing countries. Conditions such as obesity and high blood pressure also has a double impact, either as a disease or as a risk factor for other NCDs (WHO, 2004). Risk Factors The life expectancy at birth has increased since 1970 in all the high, middle and low income countries (UNDP, 2005). Due to this factor, longer life span has resulted in the predominance of the chronic diseases in the population. The epidemiological transition has resulted in the higher proportion of the adults population due to decline in fertility rates and the infant mortality rates. The behavioural risk factors like smoking and nutritional transition towards diet having high fat, high sugar with low carbohydrates and fruits along with the physical inactivity and increase in alcohol consumption have become the greatest health challenge in the 21st century (Magnusson, 2007). The environmental causes are also responsible for the emergence of NCD as an epidemic. These factors have brought up the nutrition transition by industrialisation of the food production, expansion of the market economies in the developing countries, the growth of the complex supply chain management at a global level, rapid growth of supermarket in the developing world and the growing concentration of global food manufacturers (Ibid). Some other key factors like rising incomes, production of cheap and low energy-dense foods, growing urbanisation and increase in growth in demand for pre-packed food are also the major risk factors for NCDs (Ibid). The evolution of NCDs has put up a double burden on low and middle income countries. Diabetes and lung cancer are also reflecting rise in the rate of smoking and obesity which are called to be the major risk factors for the NCDs (Leeder, 2004). In the year 2001, 17 million people died due to heart diseases where as 3 million people died due to AIDS (Ibid). During this year, heart disease and stroke were the leading cause of death in both high income and low-middle income countries, accounting for 27 and 21% population respectively. Out of all, 83% of death occurred in the developing countries (Ibid). Evidence has shown that CVD occurs at an early age in developing countries, consuming their productive years of life. Globally, obese people are also increasing at a higher pace with a far higher number overall in developing countries. Due to this, diabetic patients are also increasing with more number falling in the 45-65 age group (Ibid). Tobacco causes 4.8 million premature deaths in the year 2000, half of which were in the developing world (Ezzati and Lopez, 2003). Since 1975, cigarette consumption has decreased sharply in the developed countries, but it is continuously rising in developing countries due to the rapid increase in population. More than 1 billion smokers lives in the developing counties out of 1.3 billion smokers globally which indicates that forthcoming threat of tobacco related epidemic will impact the developing world. Even after non smoking awareness programme through out the world, there will be around 1.45 billion smokers in 2025 (Guindon and Boisclair, 2003). Tragically, half to two third of the chronic smokers will die out of their habit (Jamison et al, 2006). Peto and lopez has estimated that if this trend continues, 10 million people will die every year because of tobacco where 7 out of 10 will be from the developing countries resulting in around 150 million death till 2025. The ageing of populations, mainly due to falling fertility rates and increasing child survival, are an underlying determinant of non-communicable disease epidemics. Additionally, global trade and marketing developments are driving the nutrition transition towards diets with a high proportion of saturated fat and sugars. This diet, in combination with tobacco use and little physical activity, leads to population-wide atherosclerosis and the widespread distribution of non-communicable disease. Globally, many of the risk factors for heart disease, diabetes, cancer and pulmonary diseases are due to lifestyle and can be prevented. Physical inactivity, Western diet, alcohol and smoking are prominent causes for the NCDs and its risk factors. Tobacco is number one enemy of public health (WHO, 2000). It is the most important established cause of cancer but also responsible in CVDs and chronic respiratory disease. In the twentieth century, approximately 100 million people died worldwide from tobacco-associated diseases such as cancer, chronic lung disease, diabetes and CVDs. Half of the 5 million deaths attributed to smoking in 2000 occurred in developing countries where smoking prevalence among men is nearly 50%. Today, 80% of the 1.2 billion smokers in the world live in poorer countries and, while tobacco consumption is falling in most developed countries, it is increasing in developing countries by about 3.4% per annum. However, albeit these striking facts, the majority of developing countries which signed the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) (Joossens, 2000) remain passive about the control of smoking. Obesity and dietary habits represent potential risk factors for CVDs (Kenchaiah et al., 2002), type 2 diabetes (Drewnowski and Specter, 2004), and some types of cancer (Key, 2002), especially in absence of physical activity (Derouich and Boutayeb, 2002 and WHO, 2003b). Fish is considered to be a useful food intake to prevent CVDs and reduction of CVD associated deaths (Stampfer, 2000). Similarly, intake of an adequate quantity of fresh fruit and vegetables is recommended to help reduce the risk of coronary disease, stroke and high blood pressure (WHO, 2002). But, developing countries finds it more fruitful to export most of the quality fruits and vegetable production in exchange of the foreign currency. Alcohol causes more than 2 million deaths every year in the world. It is particularly associated with liver disease and esophageal cancer. The increase in alcohol consumption in developing countries will add other hazards caused by violence and road accidents to the burden of disease. Public health policy and its implications Lee, Fustukian and Buse provide a helpful framework for disentangling four dimensions of global health policy-making (Lee et al, 2002) as:- * Policy Actors They are the power (political) who can drive the policy and decision making at a global level. In case of NCDs, United Nations, WHO, FAO, WTO, World bank, Codex Alimentarius Commission, etc. * Policy Process Process through which policy is developed and implemented. Interactions and relationship between policy actors. * Policy Context For NCDs, its global. * Policy Content Effective strategy should address universal prevention , selective or primary prevention for high risk group and targeted or secondary prevention and treatment for those with existing conditions. It is pretty clear that NCDs has its roots in unhealthy lifestyles or adverse physical and social environments. Risk factors like unhealthy nutrition over a prolonged period, smoking, physical inactivity, excessive use of alcohol, and psychosocial stress are among the major lifestyle issues. Now to our understanding, it is known that what has to be done so we have to work more on how to do it (Aulikki et al, 2001). Well planned community programmes can be a successful step towards this process. Several factors like cultural, psychological, political and economical factors has created a gap between what needs to be done and day to day happening in the developing countries because of which major health challenges cannot be achieved. So, a community programme will help in bridging this gap and also helps in changing the NCD related lifestyles (Ibid). . The policies made at an international level also require global processes which can help to achieve a stable policy change at a country level, thus reducing the long term harm associated with it. International law is an example for this type of process. Multilateral agreements contain legally binding obligations, such as the WHOs Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC). FCTC includes hard law conventions. FCTC is an evidence-based treaty that identifies core areas of agreement over regulatory measures that involved countries are leally required to implement within their own domestic systems (WHO, 2005). Apart from FCTC, there are some soft law resolutions and declarations too, like United Millennium Declaration and WHOs Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health (GSDPAH). WHO also worked in the area of chronic, lifestyle related diseases through Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health (GSDPAH, 2004). It works on a strategy which builds on the role of t obacco, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity in the most NCDs. GSDPAH works in close relation with the UN agencies, the WTO, World Bank, other Development banks, Codex Airentarius Commission (WHO, 2004). One of the most significant health development programs within the United Nations system is the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs are a global partnership embracing ambitious goals to be achieved collectively within 15 years timeframe from 2000-2015 (Magnusson, 2007, p 6). The MDGs and FCTC serve as helpful models when considering ways of strengthening the global response to non-communicable diseases. The ideal step for developing countries to overcome the NCD epidemic and they have to plan and implement accordingly to control NCDs. Each community based prevention programmes require the same principles to be followed. As an example, The North Karelia Project in least developed areas of Finland which was based on low cost lifestyle modifications and community participation (Puska P et al, 1981). The reason to follow the general principle can be the collaboration between countries and different international organizations working on the similar fields and projects like WHOs countrywide Integrated Non Communicable Disease Intervention (CINDI, 1985). Even these sort of integrated programmes like CINDI were implemented in developed countries; they are now followed by the developing countries too. Many of these programmes are carried out in conjunction with the WHO integrated programmes, which was started in 1986. After the success of CINDI programme, American regional office had also l aunched CARMEN (AMRO) programme in 1990s. With the regional development experience, WHO has launched similar programme in Asian and African networks. In Latin America, Cuba is carrying out the NCD prevention programme from long time with the collaboration with the WHO activities where Havana and Cienfuegos as the main sites. Chile also participated in the Interhealth Programme CARMEN and was the first Latin American country to join this programme and many other countries followed it. Argentina has started PROPRIA heart health intervention as an active network at various demonstration sites (Aulikki, 2001). Africa has started community based CVD prevention programme long time back. Nigeria, Mauritius and united republic of Tanzania participated in Interhealth Programme and gained the positive responses. Mauritius intervention programme recorded considerable effect of nutrition policy and education interventions on diet and serum cholesterol levels, although rates of obesity and diabetes increased (Dowse G et al, 1995). Asias community-based initiatives have been initiated in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran and other countries. Particularly active development has taken place in China, where the Interhealth Programme was involved in initiatives in Tianjin and Beijing (Tian et al, 1995) . The Tianjin project in China was one of the major project launched in 1984 in China. This project was also cooperating groups in Finland, China and USA for NCD control since 1989. This project focused on 4 leading NCDs of China, i.e. stroke, coronary heart disease, cancer and hypertension. The aim of this project was to reduce sodium intake in the population, decrease smoking especially among men and provide hypertension care by reorganizing the existing primary health care services. The result of this project shows a significant reduction in the sodium intake after three years and also reduction in number of patients of Obesity and hypertension among 45-65yrs old after five years of the intervention. Smoking cases were also reduced among men, especially those with the higher education (Aulikki et al, 2001). Health education and the media campaigns also play an important role in the community programmes. Media campaigning although leaves the less impact on the population, it is one of the effective measure in the comprehensive package. Health service intervention such as primary care centre in the long run can also be one of the most effective intervention tools. This strategy can more appropriately work where certain biological risk factors such as hypertension and high blood pressure are dealt with. Primary health care workers played an important role in both North Karelia project and Tianjin project (Ibid). The North Karelia project worked on a concept of Community organization where various sectors of the community were collaborated and involved. It involved many non governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Housewives` organizations. It is not easy to collaborate with the industries and businesses at a small community but a classic example for it is finlands cholesterol level, which reduces with the support and collaboration of the food industries, who supported the policy decisions (Puska P et al, 1986). Aulikki et al had made some recommendations for a successful NCD prevention program which must include the following factors. A good understanding of the community, close collaborations with the various community organisations and the involvement of the local population is important for any community intervention programme. It should combine well planned media and provide some communication messages in the community activities. It should involve different elements such as primary health care workers, food industries and supermarkets, voluntary organisations, schools work places, and local media for its success. It should be cost effective, mainly in the developing countries. For this reasonable outcome, effective dose intervention is a very important requirement (Aulikki et al, 2001). The increasing NCDs burden should be controlled by the developed and developing countries as a global health priority. International organisations with the national, regional and each individuals contribution can make these programme a success. Controlling of risk factors like smoking, alcohol, obesity, diet and inactivity, sexual and environmental factors are must and should be considered seriously and worked upon to treat it. The poverty and the high cost of prevention and treatment of chronic diseases causes burden on many countries and thus demands for international solidarity and public private partnership. The coordination of health decision makers, non-governmental organizations, research institutions, community groups and individuals is must for controlling the incidence of diseases, preventing the spread of epidemics and regulate the health management of human and material resources (Boutayeb, 2005). WHO is a political champion for coordinating global response. The developin g countries face problem in the implementation and enforcing the policies that are set up by the international legal standards which have a normative role and also these legal standards are not self executing, so compliance can be monitored by the NGOs and government. A global approach in a way like this could reduce health inequalities (Magnusson, 2007). REFERENCES  · Anand K, Shah B, Yadav K, Singh R, Mathur P, Paul E, Kapoor S K (2007), Are the urban poor vulnerable to non-communicable diseases? A survey of risk factors for non-communicable diseases in urban slums of Faridabad, The National Medical Journal of India, Vol. 20, No. 3,   p 115-120.  · Aulikki Nissinen, Ximena Berrios, Pekka Puska (2001), Community-based non-communicable disease interventions: lessons from developed countries for developing ones, Bull World Health Organvol.79no.10.  · Beaglehole R, Yach D (2003), Globalization and the prevention and control of non-communicable disease: the neglected chronic diseases of adults, The Lancet; 362: 903-08. * Boutayeb Abdesslam (2006), The double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases in developing countries, Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Volume 100, Issue 3, Pages 191-199 .  · Countrywide integrated non-communicable diseases intervention (CINDI) Programme. Copenhagen, WHO, Europe, 1995. * Dowse G (1995), Changes in population cholesterol concentrations and other cardiovascular risk factor levels after five years of the non-communicable disease intervention programme in Mauritius, British Medical Journal, 311: 1255 ¾1259. * Ezzati M, Lopez A (2003), Estimates of Global Mortality Attributable to Smoking in 2000. TheLancet, 362:847-852. * Guindon G, Boisclair D (2003), Past, Current and Future Trends in Tobacco Use-Health, Jamison D, Breman J, Measham A, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans D (2006), Priorities in Health, Washington DC, World Bank.  · Horton Richard (2005), The neglected epidemic of chronic disease, The Lancet, Volume 366, Issue 9496, Page 1514. * Lee K, Fustukian S, Buse K (2002), An Introduction to Global Health Policy, Health Policy in a Globalising World, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press; 2002:3-17. * Leeder S, Raymond S, Greenberg H, Liu H, Esson K (2004), A Race Against Time: The Challenge of Cardiovascular Disease in Developing Economies, New York, Columbia University. * Magnusson R S (2007), Open Access Non-communicable diseases and global health governance: enhancing global processes to improve health development, Globalisation and health; 3:2.   (http://www.globalizationandhealth.com/content/3/1/2). * Mehan M B, Srivastava N, Pandya H, (2006), Profile of noncommunicable disease risk factor in an industrial setting, J Postgrad Med;52:167-173. * Miranda J J, Kinra S, Casas J P, Smith G D , Ebrahim S (2008), Non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries: context, determinants and health policy, Trop Med Int Health; 13(10): 1225-1234. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687091). * Murray J L and Lopez A D (1996), The global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, MA.  · Puska P (1981), The North Karelia Project: Evaluation of a comprehensive community programme for control of cardiovascular diseases in North Karelia, Finland, 1972-1977, Copenhagen, WHO, Europe. * Semenciw R M, Morrison H I, Mao Y, Johansen H, Davies J W , Wigle D T. (1988), Major Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease Mortality in Adults: Results from the Nutrition Canada Survey Cohort, International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol.17, No.2, p 317-324.  · Reddy K S (2002), Cardiovascular diseases in the developing countries: dimensions, determinants, dynamics and directions for public health action, Public Health Nutrition 5, pp. 231-237.  · WHO (2002), Reducing Risk: Promoting Health Life, World Health Organization, Geneva, Annual Report. * WHO (2003b), Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of Chronic Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Technical Report Series No. 916.  · WHO (2004), Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, WHA57.17.  · WHO (2005), WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, WHA56.1 * Yusuf S, Reddy K S, Ounpu S, Anand S (2001), Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: Part I: General considerations, the epidemiological transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization, Circulation 1

PESTLE analysis of the pharmaceutical industry

PESTLE analysis of the pharmaceutical industry The pharmaceutical industry not only develops but also produces and markets drugs licensed for use as medications. Pharmaceutical companies deals in generic and brand medications. They are subject to a variety of laws and regulations regarding the patenting, testing and marketing of drugs. Initially, The Indian pharmaceutical industry grew at a very slowly from 1947 to 1970, all due to the lack of incentives and the failure of the government which was unable to set-up a concrete regulatory framework. Now, the Industry is characterized by numerous governmental regulations and policy changes, stiff price controls, rigorous controls on formulations, and absence of international patent protection. During 1970, the Indian Patents Act (IPA) and the Drug Price Control Order (DPCO) were passed. Though DPCO acted as buffer against pharmaceutical companies making free pricing illegal, it fulfilled the goal of providing quality drugs to the public at reasonable rates. The Introduction of the IPA, which did not recognize product patents but only process patents provided a major thrust to the industry and companies which through the process of reverse-engineering, began to produce bulk drugs and formulations at lower costs. This led to high fragmentation in the industry, due to the emergence of a number of small firms. India Manufactures over 400 bulk drugs and around 60,000 formulations, which are distributed by 5,000,000 chemists all over the country. Indian pharmaceutical Industry is passing through a wave of consolidation, with the objective to strengthen their brand equity and distribution in what is essentially a branded-generics market. In the present, the growth of a domestic pharmaceutical company is critically dependent on its therapeutic presence. The old and mature categories like anti-infective, vitamins, and analgesics are de-growing while; new lifestyle categories like Cardiovascular, Central Nervous System (CNS), Anti-AIDS, Anti-Cancer and Anti Diabetic are expanding at double-digit growth rates. Various Pharmaceutical companies in India Ranbaxy Laboratories It is Indias largest pharmaceutical firm with the returns of Rs 4,198.96 Crore (Rs 41.989 billion) in 2007 Dr. Reddys Laboratories With a turnover of Rs 4,162.25 Crore (Rs 41.622 billion) in 2007, it is second largest drug firm in India by sales. Cipla it generated an annual revenue of Rs 3,763.72 Crore (Rs 37.637 billion) in 2007 and made it the third among largest pharmaceutical firms. Sun Pharmaceuticals Sun pharmaceutical Industries had an overall earnings of Rs 2,463.59 Crore (Rs 24.635 billion) in 2007. Lupin Labs Its total profit of Rs 2,215.52 Crore (Rs 22.155 billion) was in 2007. Aurobindo pharmaceutical Indias sixth largest pharmaceutical company by sales, Aurobindo posted Rs 2,080.19 Crore (Rs 20.801 billion) annual returns in 2007. GlaxoSmithKlineg With 2007 turnover touching Rs 1,773.41 Crore (Rs 17.734 billion, GSK is Indias seventh largest pharmaceutical firm. Cadila Healthcare Cadilas earnings was Rs 1,613.00 Crore (Rs 16.13 billion) in the fiscal year 2007, establishing itself as Indias eight largest drug company. Aventis pharmaceutical With an annual revenue of Rs 983.80 Crore (Rs 9.838 billion) in 2007, Aventis pharmaceutical has made a place for itself in the top ten pharmaceutical companies in India Ipca Laboratories Ipca is Indias 10th largest pharmaceutical company by sales and in 2007 it had a turnover of Rs 980.44 Crore (Rs 9.804 billion PEST ANALYSIS Political Factors There is political uncertainty, Combination of diverse political thoughts have got together to cobble together a rag-tag coalition. Hence any consistent political or economic policy cannot be expected. This muddies the investment field. The Minister in charge of the industry had been threatening to impose even more stringent Price Control on the industry than before. Thus it is throwing many investment plans into the doldrums. DPCO, which is the bible for the industry has in effect worked contrary to the stated objectives. DPCO nullifies the market forces from encouraging competitive pricing of goods dictated by the market. Now the pricing is done by the Government, based on the approved costs irrespective of the real costs. The country goes in for the IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) regime which is popularly known as the Patent Act. This Act impacts the Pharmaceutical Industry the most. Thus an Indian company could not escape paying a patent fee to the inventor of a drug by manufacturing it using a different chemical route. Indian companies went against this law and used the reverse-engineering route to invent alternate manufacturing methods. A lot of money was saved this way. This also encouraged competing company to market their versions of the same drug. This means that the impurities and trace elements that were found in different brands of the same substance were different both in qualification as well as in quantum. Therefore many brands of the same medicine were truly different. Here Branding actually meant quality and purer brand actually had pure active ingredients and lesser or less toxic impurities. Product patent regime will now eliminate all this. Patented drug would be manufactured using the same chemical routes and would be manufactured by the inventors or licentiates using the chemicals with same specifications. Hence all the brands with the same active ingredient will not have any difference in purity and impurities. The different brands will have to compete on the basis of non input-related innovations such as packaging, colour, flavours etc. Economic Factors Indians spends a very small proportion of their income on healthcare. This has stunted the demand and therefore the growth of the industry. Per capita income of avg. Indian as low as Rs. 12,890, therefore, spending on the healthcare takes a low priority. An Indian visits a doctor only when there is an emergency. This has led to a flourishing of unqualified doctors and spread of non-standardized medication. The Incidences of Taxes are high. Excise Duty (State Central), Custom Duty, Service Tax, Profession Tax, License Fees, Royalty, Pollution Clearance Tax, Hazardous substance (Storage Handling) license, income tax, Stamp Duty and a host of other levies and charges have to be paid. On an average it amounts to no less than 40-45% of the costs. The number of Registered Medical practitioners is low because of this. Due to which the reach of Pharmaceuticals is affected adversely. There are nearly 5million Medical shops. Also this affects adversely the distribution of medicines and also adds to the distribution costs. India is a high interest rate regime. Therefore the cost of funds is double that in America which adds to the cost of goods. Adequate storage and transportation facilities for special drugs are lacking. Studies had indicated that nearly 60% of the Retail Chemists do not have adequate refrigeration facilities and stored drugs under sub-optimal conditions. Thus affecting the quality of the drugs administered and of course adds to the costs. India has poor roads and railway network. Therefore, the time of transportation is higher. This calls for higher inventory carrying costs and longer delivery time. All this adds to the uncalculated costs. Its only during the last couple of years that good quality highways have been constructed. Socio-cultural Factors Poverty and associated malnutrition dramatically affected the incidence of Malaria and TB, preventable diseases continued to play havoc in India for decades even after they were eradicated in other countries. Poor Sanitation and polluted water sources ended the life of about 1 million children who were under the age of five. In India people preferred using household treatments which handed down for generations for common ailments. The use of magic/ tantrics/ hakims is still prevalent in India. Increasing pollution has added to the healthcare problem. Smoking, drinking and poor oral hygiene is still adding to the healthcare problem. Large joint families transmit communicable disease among the members. Cattle-rearing encourage diseases that are communicated by animals. Early child bearing affects the health standards of women and children. Ignorance of inoculation and vaccination has prevented the eradication of diseases like polio, chicken-pox, small-pox, mumps and measles. Technological Factors Advanced machines have dramatically increased the output and reduced the cost. Computerization has boosted the efficiency of the Pharma Industry. Newer medication, active ingredients are being discovered. In January 2005, the Government of India had more than 10,000 substances for patenting. Ayurveda is now a well recognized science and hence is providing the industry with a cutting edge. Advances in Bio-technology, Stem-cell research have given India a step forward. Humano-Insulin, Hepatitis B vaccines, AIDS drugs and many such molecules have given the industry a pioneering status. Newer drug delivery systems are the innovations of the day. The huge unemployment in India prevents industries from going fully automatic as the Government as well as the Labour Unions voice complains against such establishments. Legal Environment The pharmaceutical industry is now a highly regulated and compliance enforcing industry. As a result of which there are immense legal, regulatory and compliance overheads for the industry to absorb. This tends to restrict its dynamism but in recent years, government has begun to request industry proposals on regulatory overheads to encourage innovation in the face of mounting global challenges from external markets. In Pharmaceutical industry, there is huge PSU segment which is highly inefficient. The Government puts the surpluses generated by efficient units into the price equalization account of inefficient units thus unduly subsidizing them. On a long term basis this has made practically everybody inefficient. Effective the January, 2005 the Government has shifted from charging the Excise Duty on the cost of manufacturing to the MRP thereby making the finished products more costly. Just for a few extra bucks the current government has made many a life saving drugs unaffordable to the poor. The Government provides extra drawbacks to some units located in specified area, providing them with subsidies that are unfair to the rest of the industry, bringing in a skewed development of the industry. As a result , Pharmaceutical units have come up at place unsuitable for a best cost manufacturing activity. S.W.O.T. Analysis of Pharmaceutical Industry Strengths Cost of production is low. Large pool of installed capacities Efficient technologies are present for large number of Generics. Huge amount of skilled technical manpower. Increase in liberalization of government policies. Opportunities Aging of the world population. Increasing incomes. Growing attention towards health. New diagnoses and new social diseases. Spreading prophylactic approaches. Saturation point of market is far away. Better therapy approaches. Better delivery systems. Spreading attitude for soft medication (OTC drugs). Spreading use of Generic Drugs. Globalization Easier international trading. New markets are opening. Weakness Fragmentation of installed capacities. Low technology level of Capital Goods of this section. Non-availability of major intermediaries for bulk drugs. Lack of experience to exploit efficiently the new patent regime. Very low key RD. Low share of India in World Pharmaceutical Production (1.2% of world production but having 16.1% of worlds population). Very low level of Biotechnology in India and also for New Drug Discovery Systems. Lack of experience in International Trade. Low level of strategic planning for future and also for technology forecasting. Threats Containment of rising health-care cost. High Cost of discovering new products and fewer discoveries. Stricter registration procedures. High entry cost in newer markets. High cost of sales and marketing. Competition, particularly from generic products. More potential new drugs and more efficient therapies. Switching over form process patent to product patent. To make India a potentially strong pharmaceutical hub following weakness has to be overcome with: Low investments in innovative RD and lack of resources in order to compete with MNCs for New Drug Discovery and to commercialize molecules on a worldwide basis. Lack of strong linkages between industry and academia. Low medical expenditure and healthcare spend in the country Production of spurious and low quality drugs tarnishes the image of industry at home and abroad. RD efforts of Indian pharmaceutical companies hampered by lack of enabling regulatory requirement. Despite of unique strengths like expertise in process chemistry, availability of abundant and high quality talent, and growing hospital infrastructure, the country still accounts for less than 1 percent of the US$ 130 billion in worldwide spending in pharmaceutical research and development. Remedies: CRAMS: Inherent competitive advantages and cost-effective manufacturing capabilities has now become one of the most preferred destinations for Contract Research and Manufacturing Services (CRAMS). India has huge potential to tap the $20 billion CRAMS business that is expected to reach $31 billion by 2010. India has opportunity to grab this business. Pharma multinationals are also exploiting Indias competencies in the field of information technology and its strong and low cost IT skill sets by setting up centres for their global clinical data management functions in India. CRO: Contract able researches also offer significant opportunity to the Indian pharmaceutical industry that is becoming a global RD hot-spot for innovative pharmaceutical companies. The global contract research opportunity was $14 billion in 2006 and was expected to reach $24 billion by 2010. Identifying opportunities enablers. To Map Indian pharmaceutical industry to realize its full potential and to become globally competitive. Addressing global challenges that impact India pharma industry. Global alliances, Mergers and Acquisitions. Government should provide infrastructures for talent research. Providing regulatory protection. Giving financial incentives to encourage innovations research. Encouraging public -private partnership in infrastructure development. Example of overcoming threats and grabbing new opportunities 1. The lack of research and development (RD) productivity, expiring patents, generic competition and high profile product recalls are driving the mergers and acquisition (MA) activity in the sector. The Lots of mergers and acquisitions in the past shows that the Indian pharma industry is all set to take on the global markets. Nicholas Piramal has acquired 17 per cent in Biosyntech, a Canadian pharma packaging company in July 2005. While in June 2005, Torrent acquired Heumann Pharma, a generic drug company that was earlier a part of Pfizer. Matrixs acquisition of the Belgian firm Docpharma was the largest acquisition deal. Sun Pharmaceutical Industries has announced its plan for acquisitions in the US. Indian generic companies are increasingly fighting patent cases on these secondary patents and Resulting in earlier generic entry hence contributing to affordability of drugs in developed countries Indian companies still continues to market and export generic drugs which are off patent. US is the ideal destination for Indian companies. In US alone, major blockbuster drugs are going off patent in next few years. Further it is estimated that generic market can reach US $ 80 billion in coming few years in value terms and Indian companies stand a good chance of tapping a major chunk of this pie. 2. Lupin being among the top three Indian pharmaceutical companies by 2007 and aimed at achieving the US$ 1 billion mark. In order to compete with the foreign players, Indian pharma companies have started strengthening RD activities, entering the global generics market, venturing into contract research and started exploring segments like herbals and ayurveda; while have already established foreign pharma companies established RD centres and clinical trial centres in India to cut drug delivery costs. Lupin too made significant investments in RD, infrastructure, exports, herbal markets and other therapeutic segments to compete effectively with domestic and global pharma majors. According to Lupins top management, As the country switches on to the product regime, radical changes are expected to affect the pharmaceutical sector. A deep-rooted shift in business policy has taken place within the company by placing a strong emphasis on RD to create proprietary intellectual property. The bud get for this activity was stepped up substantially during the year to ensure that the company has a complete portfolio of products to take on the patent regime. 3. The downfall of many companies is due to not changing with the style of marketing. The analysis of Indian companies revealed that their progress is basically from the new products. Cipla has shown a tremendous growth in the market only due to focus on the new product hence they became No. 1 in 2004. Similarly, the Sun Pharmaceuticals have shown a phenomenal growth by adopting same strategy. This has resulted in their occupying 5th position in 2004. The new product success rate is going down because the companies are more interested in introducing new products and generating volume sales and not brand building. There are very few products which could have registered more than 1 Crore sales. The current scenario in the pharmaceutical industry is to launch new product then get some market share and if the response is good, pick up the brand and build the same in subsequent years.This has given dividend to companies like Ranbaxy, Cadila, Cipla, Sun Pharmaceuticals.